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W. Jared, M.B. B.A.O., M.B.B.Ch., Ph.D.

Vice Chair, The Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University

Few comparisons have been made between the virulences on the various continents (36, 151). Some laboratories may no longer publish survey results in international journals and others may have discontinued surveys altogether. Because of the usefulness of the virulence frequency and virulence combination data, both in breeding resistant wheats and in epidemiology studies on an international basis, it is essential that such data be made available wherever possible. The Proceedings of the European and Mediterranean Cereal Rusts Conferences and the Cereal Rusts Bulletin have been the vehicles for interchange throughout much of the world. This difference in aggressiveness may relate to unmeasured differences in spore production, environmental fitness, survivability or infectibility of spores, and latent or sporulating periods. With the cereal rusts, it is difficult to determine to what extent the difference in latent period is due to pathogen aggressiveness, environmental conditions their interactions, and to what extent it is due to nonspecific resistance. Barcellos (22) Donchev (82) Samborski (331) Kolmer (188) Vallega (386) Hu and Roelfs (151) Bartos et al. The map in Figure 4 shows that, at one time, it was a feared disease in most wheat regions of the world. In part, this was due to its seriousness globally and the amount of published information from Europe, North America, and Australia. The fear of stem rust was understandable because an apparently healthy crop 3 weeks before harvest could be reduced to a black tangle of broken stems and shriveled grain by harvest. In Europe and North America, the removal of the alternate host reduced the number of combinations of virulence and the amount of locally produced inoculum (aeciospores). In addition, in some areas early maturing cultivars were introduced to permit a second crop or to avoid flowering and grain filling during hot weather. Early maturing cultivars escape much of the damage caused 14 by stem rust by avoiding the growth period of the fungus. The widespread use of resistant cultivars worldwide has reduced the disease as a significant factor in production (Table 3). Although changes in pathogen virulence have rendered some resistances ineffective, resistant cultivars have generally been developed ahead of the pathogen. The spectacular epidemics that developed on Eureka (Sr6 in Australia) in the 1940s and on Lee (Sr9g, Sr11, Sr16), Langdon (Srge, +), and Yuma (Srge, +) in the United States in the mid-1950s really have been the exceptions in the past. Stem rust is more important late in the growing period, on late-sown and maturing wheat cultivars, and at lower altitudes. Spring-sown wheat is particularly vulnerable in the higher latitudes if sources of inoculum are located down wind. Large areas of autumn-sown wheat occur in the southern North American Great Plains, providing inoculum for the northern springsown wheat crop. In warm humid climates, stem rust can be especially severe due to the long period of favorable conditions for disease development when a local inoculum source is available. However, little infection results when evening dews and/or rains are followed by winds causing a dryoff prior to sunrise. The effect of light probably is an effect on the plant rather than the fungus system as urediniospores injected inside the leaf whorl result in successful fungal penetrations without light striking the fungus. Stem rust uredinia occur on both leaf and stem surfaces as well as on the leaf sheaths, spikes, glumes, awns, and even grains. This is more than leaf rust, but the infectibility is lower with only about one germling in 10 resulting in a successful infection. Stem rust uredinia, being mostly on stem and leaf sheath tissues, often survive longer than those of leaf rust, which are confined more often to the leaf blades. Stem rust urediniospores are rather resistant to atmospheric conditions if their moisture content is moderate (20-30%). Long distance transport occurs annually (800 km) across the North American Great Plains (299), nearly annually (2000 km) from Australia to New Zealand (211), and at least three times in the past 75 years (8000 km) from East Africa to Australia (392). Wheat areas of the world where stem rust was historically considered a problem and would probably be a major disease if resistant cultivars were not grown. Stem rust differs from leaf rust in requiring a longer dew period (6 to 8 hours are necessary). In addition many penetration pegs fail to develop from the appressorium unless stimulated by at least 10,000 lux of light for a 3-hour period while the plant slowly dries after the dew period.

The qubits which we will work with are superconducting charge qubits, specifically the transmon, which is a modified version of the Cooper-pair box. Coherence times of the transmon qubit have now reached - s setting up the possibility of the quantum information experiments presented in this thesis. We will see that this architecture will allow us to use a separate quantum degree of freedom, namely the photons in the cavity, to act as a quantum bus to mediate interactions between non-local qubits. This involves identifying a universal set of quantum gates, including single-qubit and two-qubit gates, and how to concatenate them to construct simple quantum algorithms to run on the processor. Chapter 2 will also describe the general quantum state measurement process, including state tomography and entanglement quantification, such that at the end of a set of quantum operations, we may identify the state of the system and the degree of entanglement contained. We will provide a description of how to build a quantum processor with transmon qubits in a microwave cavity, understanding how to implement a universal set of gates. The experimental details about building up the quantum processor will be described in chapter 5. We will review some of the sample fabrication details, including optical and electron-beam lithography procedures, performed with the help of Luigi Frunzio, Blake Johnson, and Joseph Schreier. We will also discuss considerations for designing the transmon qubits and the microwave cavities. There will be a specific emphasis on the design of a qubit with incorporated on-chip magnetic flux biasing (developed together with postdoc Johannes Majer, and implemented with postdoc Leonardo DiCarlo). The whole experimental setup from the chip-level up through the cryogenic circuitry and out to the room temperature control electronics will also be described. First, in chapter 6 we describe experiments which point to a very good initialization of the qubits to the ground state. Through a unique strongly-driven vacuum Rabi experiment, we will characterize the average photon number of our microwave cavity, and translate that to an equilibrium ground-state polarization of our qubit at the. Furthermore, the chapter will also describe a number of metrics for characterizing single-qubit gates, demonstrating gate fidelities of %, not yet reaching, but approaching the fault-tolerant threshold. We will also highlight some preliminary work towards optimized pulse-shaping to further reduce certain single-qubit gate errors. The coupling between two qubits via the cavity is demonstrated introduction spectroscopically via an avoided crossing and the presence of a `dark-state. Then, chapter 8 presents a new experiment performed together with Leonardo DiCarlo, exploiting qubits with better coherence times and the ability to tune a novel two-qubit coupling on and off with fast timescales. This new interaction is derived from the presence of higher energy levels in the transmon charge-based qubits. Using on-chip magnetic flux bias lines, the transition energies of the qubits are tunable, such that the two-qubit interaction can be turned on and off at nanosecond timescales. This interaction is used to make an entangling conditional-phase gate, permitting the generation of high fidelity two-qubit states, including highly entangled two-qubit states. Chapter 9 culminates with the implementation of two simple quantum algorithms on our superconducting processor, again in work performed together with Leonardo DiCarlo. Finally, chapter 10 will present some future directions for superconducting quantum computing, specifically detailing anticipated experiments on three to four qubits. Practical aspects of realizing a physical quantum computing platform are now the subject of countless research programs, with implementations spanning naturally occurring to man-made quantum systems. As introduced in the previous chapter (chapter 1), this thesis will present in detail the first solid-state demonstration of a simple quantum processor. However, before delving into the physical system of circuit quantum electrodynamics (chapter 3 and chapter 4) in which we realize such a processor, it is useful to review and understand the language of quantum operations and algorithms for the sake of perspective and foundation. Such texts give a broad scope of both the monumental prospects and challenges for making a quantum computer. This chapter will describe quantum information processing on a more fundamental level of quantum operations of a few qubits, picking relevant parts from the standard texts mentioned previously. This will allow us to have a solid point of reference for the actual experimental implementation to be described later in this thesis. We will start by describing a set of single and two-qubit gates which form a universal set for computing (section 2.

This debate is beset with the difficulties of selfselection, as it is often women of higher socioeconomic class who elect to breastfeed, and intelligence has a major genetic influence. Artificial feeding/formulas If a mother fails in her attempts to breastfeed, or does not wish to undertake breastfeeding, she must not be made to feel inadequate or guilty. Some mothers make an informed decision not to breastfeed because of early return to work, adoption and previous lack of success. The World Health Organization has set down very strict criteria in the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes. More recently, formula feeds have been developed that are better suited to the needs of premature infants. Formula milk now contains pre-biotic oligosaccharides that encourage a healthy gut flora. Follow-on formulas have slightly higher protein and electrolyte levels, and are usually casein-dominant. Preterm formulas Special formulas have been developed to meet the nutritional requirement of growing preterm infants who may have ongoing and catch-up need for extra nutrients that may not be met by term formulas. Hence, preterm babies should be discharged on formulas that have nutritional content somewhere halfway between preterm and standard formula. This is particularly beneficial for babies who have chronic lung disease or who were born too early. The protein content of preterm formulas (whey-based) is higher than that of term formula (2. Whey-dominant formulas form an easier-to-digest curd in the stomach, are more similar to breast milk, and are probably more suitable for young babies. Hydrolysates In hydrolysed formulas the protein molecules have been partly or completely broken down to smaller molecules, which may be less allergenic. Hydrolysed preterm formula milk is now available and is sometimes used after gastrointestinal surgery if breast milk if not available or normal formula is not tolerated. Nucleotides are present in breast milk and are progressively being introduced into formulas because of their potential to benefit the development of the gastrointestinal tract, immune system and intestinal microflora, and help iron absorption. Thickening agents Thickening agents such as rice starch, carob bean flour or pregelatinized corn starch may be added to a standard formula or may be available as an antireflux formula substituted for lactose. Prebiotics and probiotics Probiotics are live microbial supplements that colonize the gut and provide benefits to the host. Prebiotics are non-digestible foods that make their way through the digestive system and help good bacteria grow and flourish. However, the scientific evidence to support their routine use in newborns is not fully established as yet. Other modified milks required in the management of specific malabsorption conditions are shown in Table 9. The management of these conditions requires the support of a metabolic physician or other specialist and the close support of an experienced nutritionist. Interval between feeds In general, term infants weighing less than 3 kg are initially fed 3-hourly. It is reasonable to delete the night feed if the infant does not wake and is over 3 kg in weight. In preterm babies, feeds are given 2-hourly, hourly, or in some cases continuously via a pump. This may be conveniently achieved by boiling the water for 10 minutes before it is used for feed preparation. Preparation of feeds Guidelines suggested by milk manufacturers for their products should be carefully followed. The preparation of overconcentrated feeds is an important cause of hypernatraemic dehydration. For infants of birthweight greater than 2 kg, the expected weight gain is more than 20 g per day with growth in length of 0.

From the date the scheme winds-up to the normal pension age, any part of the accrued pension which was entitled to increases in accordance with the original pension scheme rules will increase from wind-up date to 30 March 2011 at the rate of the increase of the Retail Prices Index, up to a maximum of 5% per year. From 31 March 2011 to the normal retirement age, increases are at the rate of increase of the Consumer Prices Index up to a maximum of 5% per year. Once compensation is in payment, only that part of the original scheme pension which accrued from April 1997 increases each year by the rate of increase of the Consumer Prices Index capped at 2. Data collection and asking for appropriately detailed data from scheme administrators at the start will enable efficient completion of reports. While administrators should always be asked to provide additional information or clarification where this is needed to complete the report, they can be slow to respond. In appropriate cases, taking a reasonable view about what the likely information might be in the absence of actual information might be sensible and proportionate. Any missing data and such assumptions made should be clearly set out in the expert report together with details of the sensitivity of the assumptions to reasonable variation. The information requested/needed may be subject to variation in appropriate cases. The information sought will depend on whether the pension is Defined Benefit and if so, final salary or career average, Defined Contribution or Hybrid, or whether there is an annuity in payment. An external source that has high credibility and that is frequently updated should be used as a starting point for the financial, economic and demographic assumptions when determining equality of income and equality of capital value. An acceptable range of approaches to the calculations is set out in Appendix P below. In equalisation of income reports, the date to which calculations are targeted must be specified in the letter of instruction. Equal income sharing calculations need to take account of the pensions increase provisions on the various pensions in retirement. It would be appropriate to adjust pensions to a single pension increase provision standard. Such products do not generally exist; they cannot be adjusted for gender-differentials in life expectancy; and mortality assumptions of retailers are not known. They also cannot take into account the many characteristics of Defined Benefit schemes. This affects both deferred Defined Benefit pensions where early and late retirement terms are significantly different from normal actuarial terms, and active members of Defined Benefit schemes where the age at which the member leaves service and/or retires can significantly affect value. A consistent basis of valuation of a pension is variously sometimes referred in all these ways, but there is no standard definition of the value of a Defined Benefit pension. In some Defined Benefit schemes, there is a significant difference between the retirement age options for active members and deferred members. For example, the right of some police, firefighters and armed forces scheme members to an immediate pension if they stay in service up to their 25-year (policemen), 30-year (firefighters) or 22-year (armed forces) point. The calculations provided will depend on the individual circumstances of the case. For active members, where there is a final-salary link or a career average Defined Benefit scheme, an appropriate assumption needs to be made about revaluation before retirement. One method agreed to be appropriate is to take such changes into account by adjusting the pension amount at retirement to allow for the value of the changes. Any difference in terms, such as belowactuarial-value commutation rates for Defined Benefit pensions compared to taking more favourable lump sums up to 25% of the fund from Defined Contribution pensions should be noted. Whether allowances should be made in the calculations is at the discretion of the expert. Any assumptions made regarding lump sums need to be disclosed in the report, with reasons. Value-significant features of Defined Contribution or former Defined Contribution pensions (such as annuity rate guarantees, or annuity re-profiling). Where a Defined Benefit pension is being compared with a Defined Contribution (Personal Pension) sharing credit, assumptions need to be made that are inevitably imperfect but which compare both pensions on a like for like basis, as closely as possible. The Personal Pension offers more flexible benefits and there are possible market distortions with certain types of annuity (where assuming a pension share is used to buy an inflation proofed annuity). If allowance is made for such flexibilities and distortions, any assumptions made need to be disclosed in the report with reasons. Calculate sharing for equal income at the age the last pension actually comes into payment.