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V. Ronar, M.A., M.D.

Professor, Western Michigan University Homer Stryker M.D. School of Medicine

The model predicts a total loss in associative strength for A+ during the presentation of the compound if B+ is still presented individually and is continuously rewarded. Here, overexpectation by the Rescorla-Wagner model predicts no total loss of the associative strength of C as Z gains negative associative value. A+ did not decrease in associative value during the process of overexpectation, whereas C+ demonstrated an absolute loss of associative strength. We conclude that the Rescorla-Wagner model is not sufficient to systematically anticipate learning in every conceivable condition. Instead, it appears to be more accurately estimated by configural theories of learning. Animal Cognition and Behavior Support: Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Innovative Areas (26250003; 25119004) Title: Hasty decision-making delays accomplishment of learning Authors: *Y. However, little is known about the relationship between the length of time required to decision-making and the overall task performance. In this study, we conducted a nose-poke behavior test in which rats were rewarded by poking their noses into one of two holes in an operant chamber. Either one of the two holes was randomly illuminated as a light cue, which indicated the incorrect hole (no reward delivered). All rats reached the learning criterion of 80% correct rate within a 4-d task, in which the number of sessions to the criterion varied across animals. We found that rats with shorter latencies to poke spent more sessions to reach the learning criterion. These results suggest that earlier decisionmaking do not provide benefits to task performance and that deliberative decision-making is more crucial for learning than correctness in each trial. Classical analysis tools work best for data acquired during steady-state behavior, which means the subject must be overtrained on a particular task to satisfy the assumptions of the statistical model. Overtraining avoids problems arising from non-stationary data, but precludes any attempt to study learning itself. Statistical methods used for machine learning applications may be useful for analyzing data where the underlying rates vary within and across trials. In each session, which lasted 20-30 minutes, subjects were presented with never-before-seen photographic stimuli, and learned how those stimuli were implicitly ordered through trial and error responding. Performance was necessarily at chance levels (50% correct) at the start of each session, but gradually improved to 70% (on average) over the course of ~630 trials. As a multivariate regression procedure, Gaussian processes relates the neural response to all explanatory variables of interest at once. This allows the changing firing rates to be estimated without presupposing the functional form of the time series. In conclusion, we can explore the evolution of the neural response as a function of explanatory variables. In keeping with these anatomical data, we have shown that Purkinje cells in monkey mid-lateral cerebellum track the learning of arbitrary visuomotor associations in a manner in which there were no obvious changes in the kinematics of the movement (Ipata et al. We trained two monkeys on a visuomotor association task, which began when the monkeys grasped two bars, one with each hand, after which a fixation point appeared for 800 ms. One symbol signaled the monkey to release the left bar and the other to release the right bar. We began by presenting the monkey with the same over-trained symbol pair every session, and after a number of trials, changed the symbol pair to two novel symbols that the monkey had never seen before. Over 20 to 40 trials, the monkey gradually learned which symbol was associated with which hand. When we brought back the over-trained symbol pair, the monkey performed perfectly without making any error. Although the reaction time of the response increased at the symbol change the monkey made the same movements in response to welllearned and newly changed symbols. This firing rate change occurred in a specific short epoch of the trial for a given neuron, and across the sample the change in activity of the cell sample continuously tiled the entire trial duration. This epoch-specific trial-to-trial difference decreased, for both groups, as the monkey learned the association, so that, after the learning phase, the difference in activity did not change. Animal Cognition and Behavior Support: Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research S 22220006 Strategic Research Program for Brain Sciences 17dm0107151h0002 Title: Input pathways for value-coded visual responses in midbrain dopamine neurons Authors: *N. This learning is important to anticipate and acquire reward, or to avoid punishments.

Such deficits in processing movement (particularly the movement of people) could significantly contribute to the difficulties in social cognition evident in autism. Objectives: To investigate the neural correlates of potential coherent and biological motion processing deficits in adolescents with autism. Methods: Coherent motion, biological motion and coherent form perception thresholds were measured psychophysically using the method of constant stimuli. Coherent motion perception was measured with random-dot displays where coherence was varied through a standard "random-walk" manipulation. Biological motion displays were point-light depictions of a person walking embedded in moving dot displays whose coherence was varied. Global form perception stimuli were static glass patterns whose coherence was varied based on the percentage of dots aligned along a global form. Results: As a group, those with autism showed both higher coherent and biological motion thresholds while matching control group performance on the coherent form task. No consistent relationship between psychophysical and neural responses was evident in data from individuals in the autism group. Rivera2, Conclusions: these results provide evidence for a selective impairment in psychophysical and neural processing of visual motion in individuals with autism and highlight the possibility that deficits in visual processing may significantly contribute to the autism phenotype. Aylward, University of Washington Background: Recent evidence suggests that a rapid, automatic face-detection system is supported by subcortical structures including the amygdala, pulvinar, and superior colliculus. Early emerging abnormalities in these structures may be related to reduced social orienting in children with autism, and subsequently, to aberrant development of cortical circuits involved in face processing. Stimuli were 78 photos of adults with a fearful facial expression and 78 perceptual masks created by scrambling the images. Participants were instructed to press a button when pseudorandomly presented fixation crosses appeared to ensure attention to the stimuli. The control group exhibited additional significant clusters in the right amygdala, right pulvinar, and bilateral superior colliculi. In the direct group comparison, the controls showed significantly greater activation in the left amygdala, right fusiform gyrus, right pulvinar, bilateral superior colliculi, and right orbital Poster Presentations Program 145 Social Function Posters 2 46 145. Penn1, (1)University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, (2)University of North Carolina, (3)University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill Background: Difficulty with social interaction is universal in autism spectrum disorders and often constitutes the most debilitating feature of these conditions. Results: Collectively, results revealed that video modeling can enhance social play skills; establish generalized responding; and build a sequence of social play behaviors. Data also showed that all competing behaviors like disruptive or self-stimulatory reduced substantially as soon as social play skills occurred; behavior gains generalized across stimuli, settings, and peers and maintained after 1-, 2-, or 3-month follow-up periods. Conclusions: Video modeling can become a time-efficient and powerful educational tool for individuals with autism. In autism, however, reciprocity of social exchange is missing and this has a devastating effect on the skill of relating. Recently video modeling has been regarded as an effective procedure that may offer some help. Objectives: the overall aim of this presentation is to demonstrate scientific evidence for video modeling as a valuable technique for promoting social play skills in children with autism. Critical components of this procedure will be highlighted through a brief exploration of three experimental studies. Some data from these studies have already been published in peer-reviewed journals and a book. Methods: In total, 13 children with autism participated and experimental control was demonstrated using either a multiple-baseline across subjects or a multiple-treatment designs. Study 1 investigated the general notion of promoting social play skills in children with autism. Study 2 assessed the effectiveness of video modeling in establishing generalized responding of these target behaviors. Study 3 examined how many sequences of behavior could be included in individual video clips in terms that effective activity schedules would be constructed using video clips instead of booklets of pictures.

The spinning of Earth creates the Coriolis effect, which makes winds around low pressure systems in the northern hemisphere turn counterclockwise and winds around high pressure systems turn clockwise. Hydrosphere the oceans are also mixed by surface currents, which are moved by the winds and tides. The large, basin-wide ocean gyres circulate clockwise in the northern hemisphere (North Pacific, North Atlantic) and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere (South Pacific, South Atlantic, Indian Ocean). The oceans have a second, different kind of circulation called thermohaline circulation ("temperature" (thermo) + "salt" (haline)-the factors that determine the density of water). When sea ice forms, like in winter at high latitudes, the freezing of fresh water into ice leaves the remain262 ing ocean water more salty. These two factors create the densest water at certain high latitude regions, particularly in winter in the north Atlantic and around Antarctica. Thus, if one goes downward from the hot water at the surface of the equator, one will find near the ocean floor a thick layer of water that is just a couple degrees above freezing. The dominant ions in seawater are chloride (55% by weight), sodium (30%), sulfate (8%), magnesium (4%), and calcium (1%). When precipitated, the sodium and chloride form salt, though the other elements are present as well. Soil Soil is derived from two factors: rock that has been physically weathered into small particles, and biological material such as dead leaves. The amount of organic matter in the soil (from leaves and parts of organisms, for example) decreases with depth. Soil is typically about a meter thick, but this varies tremendously from place to place. The amount of organic matter in the soil depends on the vegetation and, most crucially, on the temperature. Bacteria and fungi in the soil feed upon, and thus break down, the organic matter. At higher temperatures, the bacteria are more active, and at lower temperatures, less so. Because of this, some soils in cold areas, like northern Canada and Siberia, are very thick and have a high percentage of organic matter. Tropical soils, however, have very little organic matter because the breakdown (decomposition) by microbes is rapid. The widespread cutting down of trees and removal of vegetation in tropical areas robs the area of the vital organic material needed to maintain high-nutrient soils. This water dissolves elements from the mineral grains in the soil (the material that came from parent rocks). These ions are carried by the flow of groundwater into streams and then rivers, which eventually deposit them into the ocean. The soil is key in the recycling of elements from vegetation to ions and then back to vegetation. As bacteria and fungi feed on the detritus from vegetation (leaves, dead roots, branches), they return elements to their ionic forms in the soil water, making these nutrients again available for the plants. They can do so because air circulates between the atmosphere and soil via pores in the soil. Life Life is an active part of the biosphere, and it makes a huge difference to the surface state of the planet- in fact, to soil, ocean, and atmosphere. Without life, there would be no soil-only sand piles here and there between large zones of bedrock. The roots of plants and the organic matter from the detritus of plants create a matrix that holds soil together and can retain water. Furthermore, the acids put forth by certain forms of soil life increase the rate of chemical weathering of soil minerals. Regarding the oceans, algae photosynthesize at the surface where the sunlight hits. This removes elements from the surface of the ocean and places them into deep water. The elements circulate back up to the surface via currents and the thermohaline circulation.

To determine the proportion of costs to allocate to professional fees, the analysis used a rate of 17. This is the average reimbursement of professional fees for services covered by Medicaid, according to recently published data4 (see Appendix D for further explanation). To estimate cost savings from these avoided tests, pricing information from a variety of sources was used to estimate the cost of purchasing or producing these tests. Distributed over 178 cases, the resulting average net benefit of sequencing per patient was $4,287 ($763,000/178 patients). Of the eliminated costs, approximately 94% resulted from reduced length of stay and 6% from avoided major procedures such as invasive biopsies. During Project Baby Bear, as physicians became more familiar with the technology, patient identification became more intuitive and ingrained within the care teams. Limitations As with any estimates, there are limitations to the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the data cited in this report. Most importantly, physician judgements about treatment changes are inevitably subjective, although significant care has been taken to be conservative and consistent in those judgments. It should be noted, however, that we anticipate healthcare cost savings to continue to occur through infancy, childhood and the lifetime, and to extend to parents and siblings. Researchers recently reported that children who undergo genome-wide sequencing continue to accrue benefits for 20 years and attributed an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $9,910 per quality-adjusted life-year gained from genome-wide sequencing diagnosis. However, this was not addressed in the model as it is too speculative to concretely determine. Despite these limitations, it should be noted that the methodology used was identical to that published in the peerreviewed healthcare literature. Through responsible stewardship of the funding, the five clinical sites participating in Project Baby Bear enrolled 78% more babies than projected, nearly doubling the state-mandated genome sequencing requirement of 100 babies in the 2018 Budget Act appropriation of $2 million. All samples receive ultra-rapid whole genome sequencing with additional orthogonal testing as needed based on the results · Turn around time for ultra-rapid whole genome sequencing is < 3 days · $12,500 per case In the Project Baby Bear cohort, 31. Rates of diagnosis (43%) and subsequent changes in medical management (31%) exceeded projections. Rapid whole genome sequencing is well positioned to be a first-tier diagnostic test for critically ill babies with diseases of unknown cause. Hospitals and laboratories that lack these resources will likely fail to achieve similar improvements in the health of babies or comparable reductions in the cost of care. This has been endorsed by Blue Shield of California, which now provides rapid whole genome sequencing as a covered benefit. Table 4 records the wide range of signs and symptoms the 178 enrolled babies presented to clinicians. Table 5 documents each genetic disease diagnosed in Project Baby Bear infants as well as the U. Thirty-five of the diagnosed genetic diseases are rare conditions with an incidence of less than one in one million births. Sixty-five of the 71 primary genetic diseases were diagnosed just once in the Baby Bear population. One infant had a third diagnosis based on an incidental finding that was unrelated to the signs and symptoms that led to sequencing. Two of the 29 summaries are longer to provide additional context, examples and clarity. During this waiting period, the baby had failed extubations, and in the absence of a definitive diagnosis physicians were unable to proceed with a specific treatment. If a seizure gene panel had been ordered (current standard of care), the turnaround time for that test would have been four to six weeks. This allowed the parents to make the informed decision to move the baby to comfort care. Initially, the plan was to complete a dysphagia study to discover why the baby had difficulty swallowing. This study would have revealed that the baby was aspirating, and the patient would have been fed through a nasogastric tube for two weeks, after which another dysphagia study would have been performed. Only upon the results of this second test would a gastrostomy tube have been initiated.