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K. Luca, M.A., Ph.D.
Vice Chair, University of Texas Medical Branch School of Medicine
Freezer life may be almost indefinite, depending on the chemicals involved, though storage at normal temperatures usually results in considerable loss of potency after several months or longer. This also depends largely on the other ways in which the herbs are stored, as mentioned above. Aromatic plants lose potency more quickly, due to evaporation of active compounds. Conversely, nonaromatic plants often store well for longer periods; many roots, seeds and berries may be kept for years. Herbs will last even longer if plant parts are stored relatively intact until intended for use. One method involves mixing the powdered herb to a firm consistency with water, syrup or honey, which is pressed into pellets. Or, a decoction may be gently boiled down to a thick gum to be used in the same way. Sometimes powdered herbs [or a concentrated extract thereof] are simply encapsulated and swallowed. Pills or capsules are sometimes coated with powders such as plant ashes, flour, or Lycopodium spores if they are to be stored. Distillation Distillation is the process whereby a tincture, or other plant extract in a volatile solvent medium, is heated in an appropriate glassware flask, the vapours from which are guided into a long, water-cooled condensingtube, which drips the cooled concentrate [distillate] from the other end. Fractional distillation is where the temperature of the solvent is regulated to retrieve specific chemical fractions from the extract, exploiting knowledge of their boiling points. Steam distillation involves heating water to produce steam, which is then fed into a pre-heated vessel containing the extract. The evaporating essence from this secondary vessel is condensed in the manner described above. Steam distillation is useful in extracting more delicate aromas and essences from plants. The aim of distillation is to provide a concentrated or more purified extract of the original extract. The first stage is usually that of finely chopping, shredding or powdering the herb for further processing into a consumable form. This may be to leach out tannic acids, chlorophyll, and other water-soluble compounds that may or may not be desired; or to make them easier to process; or to absorb some water before heating [such as with roots] to allow for better extraction. The next step often may be for the herb to be extracted into another medium for consumption, or further extraction to obtain either crude or pure active chemicals. Alkaloid extraction Any but the most basic of chemical extractions should not be carried out by the amateur. This author is not a chemist, and does not claim to offer any chemical advice that should be followed. The following is merely intended to describe some of the different approaches used in the extraction of alkaloids, summarised from readily available published works and communications with other researchers. Anyone wishing to pursue chemical extractions should educate themselves further, to ensure they do not encounter disaster. Working with chemicals without proper awareness of their toxicity and special requirements for handling and use, coupled with ignorance of the principles of organic chemistry, is asking for a dangerous accident that could ruin or end your life. In some countries, it may be legal to grow a certain plant, but illegal to extract the alkaloids it contains, if any one of those alkaloids is a prohibited substance. If you choose to attempt any method described here, at least educate yourself as to the precautions that must be taken with any chemicals used, and become acquainted with some basic chemical reactions and procedures so that you know what you are doing, and can avoid physical injury through unnecessary error. At the very least, equip yourself with protective gear [for all exposed skin and facial openings], and avoid breathing fumes or splashing chemicals on yourself, into the soil, or into bodies of water. Wherever possible, distil solvents for re-use rather than simply evaporating them into the air. If chemicals can not be re-used they must be taken to a chemical waste disposal service, never simply poured into the earth or down the drain.
Syndromes
- American College of Rheumatology - http://www.rheumatology.org/practice/clinical/patients/diseases_and_conditions/scleroderma.asp
- Atypical mycobacterium (a type of bacteria)
- Stage III - the cancer has spread to nearby tissue or to far away lymph nodes
- Problems with the structure or position of the intestines
- Hepatic coma
- The second, less common form involves the spread of the bacteria through the blood (disseminated gonococcemia), which leads to infection of a joint, sometimes more than one joint.
- Brain tumor
If so, then protecting property is a necessary part of being part of that system, whether as an individual or as a business entity. Coverage As we have noted, property insurance provides coverage for real and personal property owned by a business or an individual. Property insurance is also part of automobile policies covering damage to the car caused by an accident (collision coverage) or by other events such as vandalism or fire (comprehensive coverage). A broader policy, known as broad coverage, also includes these perils: falling objects; weight of ice, snow, and sleet; collapse of buildings; sudden and accidental damage to heating systems; accidental discharge from plumbing, heating, or air-conditioning systems; freezing of heating, plumbing, and air conditioning systems; and sudden and accidental injury from excess currents to electrical appliances and wiring. Even with the broadest form of coverage, known as comprehensive, which covers all perils except for certain named exclusions, the homeowner can be left without protection. For example, comprehensive policies do not usually cover damage resulting from flooding, earthquakes, war, or nuclear radiation. The homeowner can purchase separate coverage for these perils but usually at a steep premium. Insurable Interest in Property To purchase property insurance, the would-be insured must have aninsurable interest in the property. Insurable interest is a real and substantial interest in specific property such that a loss to the insured would ensue if the property were damaged. You could not, for instance, take out an insurance policy on a motel down the block with which you have no connection. But if you helped finance the motel and had an investment interest in it, you would be permitted to place an insurance policy on it. This requirement of an insurable interest stems from the public policy against wagering. Any legal interest is sufficient: a contractual right to purchase, for instance, or the right of possession (a bailee may insure). This insurable interest must exist both at the time you take out the policy and at the time the loss occurs. In property insurance, a distinction is made between assignment of the coverage and assignment of the proceeds. But the insured may assign any claims against the insurer-for example, the proceeds not yet paid out on a claim for a house that has already burned down. It is economically feasible because not every house burns down and not every car is stolen. The number that do burn down or that are stolen can be calculated and the premium set accordingly. Events that will certainly happen, like ordinary wear and tear and the destruction of property through deliberate acts such as arson, must be excluded from such calculations. Coinsurance Clause Most commercial property policies contain a so-called coinsurance clause, which requires the insured to maintain insurance equal to a specified percentage of the property value. If the property owner insures for less than that percentage, the recovery will be reduced. The usual formula establishes the proportion that the insurer must pay by calculating the ratio of (1) the amount of insurance actually taken to (2) the coinsurance percentage multiplied by the total dollar value of the property. The plant should have been insured for 80 percent ($800,000), but the insured took out only a $500,000 policy. To see why, multiply the total damages of $160,000 by the coinsurance proportion of five-eighths ($500,000 of insurance on the required minimum of $800,000). Liability Insurance Liability insurance has taken on great importance for both individuals and businesses in contemporary society. Liability insurance covers specific types of legal liabilities that a homeowner, driver, professional, business executive, or business itself might incur in the round of daily activities. And businesses, professionals, and individuals typically acquire liability insurance for driving-related activities as part of their automobile insurance. In all cases, liability policies cover not only any settlement or award that might ultimately have to be paid but also the cost of lawyers and related expenses in defending any claims. Liability insurance is similar in several respects to property insurance and is often part of the same package policy. As with property insurance, subrogation is allowed with liability insurance, but assignment of the policy is not allowed (unless permission of the insurer is obtained), and intentional losses are not covered. For example, an accountant who willfully helps a client conceal fraud will not recover from his malpractice insurance policy if he is found guilty of participating in the fraud. No-Fault Trends the major legal development of the century relating to liability insurance has been the elimination of liability in the two areas of greatest exposure: in the workplace and on the highway.
Verticils 2-flowered, forming 1-sided spikes 5-12cm long, shortly pilose; bracts broadly linear, small, persistent; flowers bisexual, pedicelled; calyx deeply 5-toothed, actinomorphic, campanulate, with lanceolate lobes, hairy on throat, 3mm long at anthesis, 5-6mm long in fruit, nearly as long as pedicels, exceeding the bracts; corolla white. Mountains; Honshu [Kanto district and westward], Shikoku, Kyushu [Japan] (Ohwi 1965). A leaf decoction may be used as an eyewash to improve night vision, or as a body wash for skin disorders; shoots and stems also treat dysentery and diarrhoea (Kirtikar & Basu 1980; Perry & Metzger 1980; Reid 1995; Wen et al. Kochia scoparia is a tall annual herb, 90-150cm high, glabrous or pubescent, strict, erect; branches erect and stems slender, white, smooth, the ultimate twigs pilose or villous. Flower clusters in leafy panicled spikes; flowers axillary, hermaphrodite or mainly female (rarely only male); bracts 0; perianth subglobose; lobes 5, coriaceous, incurved, closing over the utricle, girt by 5 free or confluent horizontal wings; stamens 5, usually exserted, inserted at the bottom of perianth; anthers larger, ovate. Ovary depressed-globose; style slender; stigmas 2-3, capillary; utricle depressed, membranous. Fruiting perianth very variable, wings short, semicircular, scarious, nerved, entire, shorter than the diameter of the disc. Seed horizontal, ovoid or orbicular; testa membranous; albumen scanty; embryo annular. There is usually complete recovery after 12 hours (Bruneton 1995; Forrester 1979; Foster & Caras 1994; Hatfield et al. It acts as a purgative, and the pulp from inside the seed pods has been used to flavour Bengal tobacco [see Nicotiana]; its flowers are also offered to some Hindu deities (Bremness 1994). Boiling destroys this property, so the herbs are usually infused in water (Cribb & Cribb 1981; Morton 1977). When roasted, the seeds lose their purgative properties, and are then sometimes used as coffee substitutes [see Coffea]. A decoction of the roots, leaves, and flowers is also used to treat spasms and hysteria (Nadkarni 1976). In Brazil, the plant has caused intoxications in cattle, with symptoms including disequilibrium, tremors, weakness, dragging of the rear hooves and diarrhoea. Via the oral route, effects manifest within 1hr, and recovery may occur after 12-24hrs. Severe poisoning may lead to more severe hallucinations, convulsions, and even coma and death from respiratory paralysis. Bark and seeds are the most concentrated in cytisine; 20 seeds have been lethal in children. Alkaloid content may vary considerably (Barlow & McLeod 1969; Bruneton 1995; Forrester 1979; Hatfield et al. Smoking a cigarette of the dried flowers might be a safer method of ingestion, to produce a sub-toxic inebriation. It may be appropriate to prepare them in a similar manner to Cytisus canariensis flowers (pers. During development and ripening, alkaloid levels increase in the seeds and decrease in the pods; ripe seed has yielded 0. Glycosides such as sennoside A and sennoside B are primarily responsible for the purgative activity of many Cassia spp. Laburnum anagyroides is a hardy shrub or small tree to 10m tall, with spreading branches close to the ground; twigs with close-pressed hairs. Leaves alternate, trifoliate; leaflets elliptical-oblong, pubescent underneath, subsessile to 8cm long; petioles long; stipels none, stipules minute or none. Inflorescence showy pendulous terminal or axillary racemes to 46cm long; flowers golden yellow, 2cm long, pea-like; bracts and bracteoles small, early caducous; calyx tube very short, campanulate, obscurely bilabiate, lips obtuse, short, upper lip bidentate, longer, lower lip tridentate, usually ciliate, petals free, standard orbicular or broadovate, upcurved, without basal ears or tubercles, wings shorter than standard, obovate, keel very short, incurved, glabrous, not beaked; stamens 10, monadelphous; anthers alternately long and short. Pods in clusters, to 8cm long, silky, persistent, long-stalked, linear, narrow, nearly flattened, sutures thickened or slightly winged, slightly constricted between seeds, continuous within, 2-valved, tardily dehiscent; seeds several, kidney-shaped, dark brown. Native to central and southern Europe; grown as an ornamental, and an occasional garden escape (Allen & Allen 1981; Foster & Caras 1994; Tamplon 1977; Turner & Szczawinski 1991). Dioscorides recognised the plant as being soporific, cooling and emmolient, and claimed that the seeds could dispel sexual desire. The famed Greek physician Galanus used to eat lettuce leaves in the evening to help himself sleep. Aphrodite was said to have lain the dead body of Adonis on a bed of lettuce leaves, according to Greek mythology.
According to the complaint, but for the agreement with State Oil, respondents could have charged different prices based on the grades of gasoline, in the same way that the receiver had, thereby achieving increased sales and profits. The court first noted that the agreement between respondents and State Oil did indeed fix maximum gasoline prices by making it "worthless" for respondents to exceed the suggested retail prices. Although the Court of Appeals characterized Albrecht as "unsound when decided" and "inconsistent with later decisions" of this Court, it felt constrained to follow that decision. Some types of restraints, however, have such predictable and pernicious anticompetitive effect, and such limited potential for pro-competitive benefit, that they are deemed unlawful per se. Per se treatment is appropriate "once experience with a particular kind of restraint enables the Court to predict with confidence that the rule of reason will condemn it. Thus, we have expressed reluctance to adopt per se rules with regard to "restraints imposed in the context of business relationships where the economic impact of certain practices is not immediately obvious. Supreme Court (1911), the Court recognized the illegality of agreements under which manufacturers or suppliers set the minimum resale prices to be charged by their distributors. By 1940, the Court broadly declared all business combinations "formed for the purpose and with the effect of raising, depressing, fixing, pegging, or stabilizing the price of a commodity in interstate or foreign commerce" illegal per se. Accordingly, the Court condemned an agreement between two affiliated liquor distillers to limit the maximum price charged by retailers in Kiefer-Stewart Co. Supreme Court (1951), noting that agreements to fix maximum prices, "no less than those to fix minimum prices, cripple the freedom of traders and thereby restrain their ability to sell in accordance with their own judgment. The Court determined that too little was known about the competitive impact of such vertical limitations to warrant treating them as per seunlawful. In Schwinn, the Court acknowledged that some vertical restrictions, such as the conferral of territorial rights or franchises, could have procompetitive benefits by allowing smaller enterprises to compete, and that such restrictions might avert vertical integration in the distribution process. The Court drew the line, however, at permitting manufacturers to control product marketing once dominion over the goods had passed to dealers. Albrecht, decided [a year after Schwinn], involved a newspaper publisher who had granted exclusive territories to independent carriers subject to their adherence to a maximum price on resale of the newspapers to the public. Influenced by its decisions inSocony-Vacuum, Kiefer-Stewart, and Schwinn, the Court concluded that it was per seunlawful for the publisher to fix the maximum resale price of its newspapers. The Court acknowledged that "maximum and minimum price fixing may have different consequences in many situations," but nonetheless condemned maximum price fixing for "substituting the perhaps erroneous judgment of a seller for the forces of the competitive market. The Court acknowledged the principle of stare decisis, but explained that the need for clarification in the law justified reconsideration of Schwinn: "Since its announcement, Schwinn has been the subject of continuing controversy and confusion, both in the scholarly journals and in the federal courts. The great weight of scholarly opinion has been critical of the decision, and a number of the federal courts confronted with analogous vertical restrictions have sought to limit its reach. In our view, the experience of the past 10 years should be brought to bear on this subject of considerable commercial importance. The Court concluded that, because "departure from the rule-of-reason standard must be based upon demonstrable economic effect rather than-as inSchwinn-upon formalistic line drawing," the appropriate course would be "to return to the rule of reason that governed vertical restrictions prior to Schwinn. We noted in Maricopa County that vertical restraints are generally more defensible than horizontal restraints. Our analysis is also guided by our general view that the primary purpose of the antitrust laws is to protect interbrand competition. Our interpretation of the Sherman Act also incorporates the notion that condemnation of practices resulting in lower prices to consumers is "especially costly" because "cutting prices in order to increase business often is the very essence of competition. A supplier might, however, fix a maximum resale price in order to prevent his dealers from exploiting a monopoly position. It would do this not out of disinterested malice, but in its commercial self-interest. The higher the price at which gasoline is resold, the smaller the volume sold, and so the lower the profit to the supplier if the higher profit per gallon at the higher price is being snared by the dealer. We recognize that the Albrecht decision presented a number of theoretical justifications for a per se rule against vertical maximum price fixing. The Albrecht decision was grounded in the fear that maximum price fixing by suppliers could interfere with dealer freedom.