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The distance from the stockpile for each zone varies and is based on risk analyses. Sirens and tone alert radios serve to alert and warn residents in Immediate Response Zones. This provides the right atmosphere for people to stay calm and follow the recommendations of local officials and emergency managers. Public information facilities in neighborhoods serve to disseminate information and function as response command centers for questions from the media and concerned citizens. The chemical agents are stored in three basic configurations: (1) projectiles, cartridges, mines, and rockets containing propellant and explosive components; (2) aircraft-delivered munitions that do not contain explosive components; and (3) one ton steel containers. Three priorities were identified: timely and accurate communication between responder groups, a system to identify and distribute available resources including 664 Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics pharmaceuticals, and operating procedures for all responsible agencies. Research and development needs for each of these areas were identified and short- and long-term projects were suggested (Chemical and Biological Terrorism: Research and Development to Improve Civilian Chemical Response, 1999). Accordingly, a federal interagency team coordinates the training and exercise programs with multiple U. Those receiving the training later promulgate it on a sustaining basis in their own communities. The effectiveness of the training is assessed in subsequent tabletop and functional exercises that provide direct feedback to the city for future activities and programs the city may pursue to enhance the response to chemical terrorism. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense located at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, in partnership with the U. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, conducts the Medical Management of Chemical and Biological Casualties Course. This course is designed for physicians, nurses, and other medical professionals and is accredited for Continuing Medical Education units through the American Medical Association. Since 1980, more than 20,000 students have been trained in this course both at the laboratory and at remote locations around the world. This and other trainings have been made available to civilian medical personnel and first-responders. The most recent course added to the curriculum is the Hospital Management of Chemical, Biological, Radiological=Nuclear and Explosive Incidents Course. This course is designed to equip military and civilian, hospital-based medical and management professionals with skills, knowledge, and information resources to carry out the full spectrum of health care facility responsibilities required by a chemical, biological, radiological= nuclear, explosive, or mass casualty event. Since December 2004, more than 400 students have obtained training in this course. The institute has also developed a Web site featuring a variety of instructional products in the medical management of chemical casualties (U. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Chemical Casualty Care Division Web site). Materials from the training courses offered are available for download, including PowerPoint slides from course lectures. Also available on the site is the complete Textbook of Military Medicine, Part 1, Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. National Response Center Congressional legislation has specifically directed the establishment of a designated telephonic link to a designated source of relevant data and expert advice for the use of state or local officials responding to emergencies involving a weapon of mass destruction. As part of the center, Emergency Response to a Chemical Warfare Agent Incident 665 the Domestic Preparedness Chemical and Biological Hotline (1-800-424-8802) is operated 7 days a week, 24 h a day (National Response Center Web site). It provides emergency technical assistance from a variety of federal agencies or, if warranted, an actual federal response to assist firstresponders during incidents. The hotline is intended for use by first-responders as well as state emergency operations centers and medical facilities. Assistance is provided on a wide array of subjects that include personal protective equipment, decontamination systems and methods, toxicology information, and medical symptoms and treatment for exposure to chemical and biological agents. The program has formed an alliance between federal, state, and local government offices as well as various industry organizations. Through an iterative process of workshops, conferences, exercises, and technical studies, the program has structured its work around four functional working groups: Health and Safety, Emergency Management, Emergency Response, and Law Enforcement. The responsibility of each group is to identify, prioritize, and arrive at solutions pertinent to firstresponders.

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Queen Elizabeth I restores Protestantism, reestablishing the Church of England (Anglicanism) 1580. Francis Drake returns to England after 3 years spent circumnavigating the globe (Queen Elizabeth knights him a year later) 1582. Jamestown, Virginia, is established as the first permanent English colony on the American mainland 1609. Peter the Great becomes Czar of Russia and attempts to westernize the nation by attacking all outward signs of oriental life 1700. United Kingdom of Great Britain is formed, uniting England, Scotland, and Wales 1740. British troops, led by James Wolfe, capture Quebec on the Plains of Abraham from the French, led by General Montcalm 1762. James Cook begins the first of his 3 epic voyages (he dies in Hawaii in 1779) 1775. Napoleon crowns himself emperor of France at Notre Dame in Paris; Haiti declares its independence from France and becomes the first black nation to gain freedom from European colonial rule 1805. Napoleon returns to power and the "Hundred Days" begin; Napoleon is defeated by Wellington and others at Waterloo, then banished to the island of St. Anglo-American journalist Henry Morton Stanley finds Scottish missionary and explorer David Livingstone on the east coast of Lake Tanganyika 1876. The Indonesian volcano Krakatoa (Krakatau) erupts, killing about 36,000 people 1887. First modern Olympic games are held in Athens, Greece, thanks to the efforts of Baron Pierre de Coubertin 1898. Wright brothers Orville and Wilbur fly the first powered heavier-than-air plane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina 1906. Norwegian Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole in December, 5 weeks ahead of Robert Falcon Scott 1912. The Titanic strikes an iceberg and sinks on its maiden voyage on April 15 with over 1,500 deaths 1913. World War I begins following the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophie as they are driving through Sarajevo; Austria declares war on Serbia, Germany declares war on Russia and France, and Britain declares war on Germany; the Panama Canal is officially opened 1915. Mitchell Palmer begins, and his "Palmer Raids" result in the deportation of thousands of aliens and radicals; Treaty of Sevres dissolves Ottoman Empire 1921. Italian-born anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti are convicted of armed robbery and murder in a Massachusetts shoe factory (despite worldwide protests, they are executed in 1927) 1922. Lenin dies and Stalin succeeds him, ruling as Soviet dictator until his death in 1953 1926. Lindbergh makes the first successful solo nonstop flight from New York to Paris 1928. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler becomes German chancellor; the Reichstag, or parliament building in Berlin, is burned down and the Communists are blamed, allowing Nazi terror to begin; Germany withdraws from the League of Nations and Japan soon does likewise 1934. Spanish Civil War begins with many army units led by General Francisco Franco revolting against the government; Olympic Games are held in Berlin, and the Nazis are embarrassed as Jesse Owens wins 4 gold medals 1937. Japan invades China; Amelia Earhart, along with her co-pilot Fred Noonan, is lost somewhere in the Pacific on an around-the-world-flight 1938. Churchill becomes prime minister after Neville Chamberlain resigns; Battle of Britain ends after Germany loses more than 1,700 Luftwaffe planes 1941. Nazi leaders plan the "final solution to the Jewish question," the systematic genocide of Jews known as the Holocaust; German troops led by Gen. Allies invade Normandy on D-Day (June 6); Paris is liberated; Battle of the Bulge 1945. Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin meet at Yalta to make plans for the final defeat of Germany; Germany surrenders on May 7; U. Marshall Plan to aid Europe is proposed; Jackie Robinson breaks the racial barrier by joining the Brooklyn Dodgers 1948. Mohandas Gandhi is assassinated in New Delhi by Hindu fanatic; Berlin blockade begins on June 24 (ends in 1949 on May 12); State of Israel is proclaimed 1949. Korean War begins when North Korean Communist forces invade South Korea; China invades Tibet, and by 1951 has declared it an autonomous region of China 1951.

It also depends on the difference in the density of solute particles and the solvent. When solute particles are lighter than the solvent, they would float and vice versa. In density gradient centrifugation, the sample is layered over a linear sucrose gradient (5-20%) and centrifuged at a high speed. Substances with different S units will separate from one another as separate bands. Ultracentrifugation is also used for preparative separation of biological molecules. Two dimensional electrophoresis Used to study differences in protein content of cells in genetic disorders. The detection of the separated proteins may be done either by autoradiography or Coomassie Blue stain. Large molecules can be sedimented at high centrifugal forces whereas small molecules cannot. The centrifugation at such high speed is carried out in a vacuum to eliminate air friction. The method was first employed by Tswett, a botanist in 1903, for the separation of plant pigments using a column of alumina. Adsorption Chromatography In this technique the separation is based on differences in adsorption at the surface of a solid stationary medium. These are packed into columns and the mixture of proteins to be separated is applied in a solvent on the top of the column. The fractions slowly move down; the most weakly held fraction moves fastest; followed by others, according to the order of tightness in adsorption. The eluent from the column is collected as small equal fractions and the concentration of each is measured, in each fraction. Partition Chromatography this technique was developed by Martin and Synge in 1941 (Nobel prize, 1952). This includes different types depending on the phases between which the components are partitioned. There is a stationary phase which may be either solid or liquid over which a liquid or. Paper chromatography 602 Textbook of Biochemistry; Section G: Advanced Biochemistry gaseous mobile phase moves. By this process, the components of the mixture to be separated are partitioned between the two phases depending on the partition co-efficient (solubility) of the particular substances. The redistribution of the substances between the two phases results in separation of the components of the mixture. Paper Chromatography the stationary phase is water held on a solid support of filter paper (cellulose). The mobile phase is a mixture of immiscible solvents which are mixtures of water, a nonpolar solvent and an acid or base. Either ascending or descending type of chromatography can be done with the mobile phase being applied from the bottom (ascending) or at the top (descending). A few microliters of the mixture of compounds to be separated is applied as a small compact spot at one corner of the paper about 1 inch from the edges. In ascending chromatography, the paper is placed in a glass trough containing the solvent which ascends up the solid support medium. A thin layer of silica gel (Kieselguhr) is spread on a glass plate; biological sample is applied as a small spot; the plate is placed in a trough containing the solvent. The stationary water phase is held on the silica gel and mobile phase of non-polar solvent moves up. In the case of paper chromatography, it takes 14-16 hours for separation of components to be separated. Visualization of Chromatography After the chromatographic run is over, the paper has dried, it is sprayed with a location reagent. Some common location reagents used are: Ninhydrin for amino acids and proteins, sulphuric acid for phospholipids; diphenylamine for sugars.

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