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For example, species of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan (a bird), living in the arctic region have temporary white coverings during winter to blend with the snow and ice (Figure 11. The similarity occurs not because of common ancestry, indeed one covering is of fur and the other of feathers, but because of similar selection pressures-the benefits of not being seen by predators. Structures that are absent in some groups often appear in their embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult or juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos, including humans, exhibit gill slits at some point this content is available for free at cnx. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial groups, but are maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such as fish and some amphibians. The reason embryos of unrelated species are often similar is that mutational changes that affect the organism during embryonic development can cause amplified differences in the adult, even while the embryonic similarities are preserved. Biogeography the geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows patterns that are best explained by evolution in conjunction with the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide. Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions of the planet, for example the unique flora and fauna of northern continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent Gondwana. Today, members of this plant family are found throughout the southern hemisphere (shown in red). Australia has an abundance of endemic species-species found nowhere else-which is typical of islands whose isolation by expanses of water prevents migration of species to other regions. Over time, these species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. Molecular Biology Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life reflect descent with modification. For example, it is clear that the evolution of new functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplication events. These duplications are a kind of mutation in which an entire gene is added as an extra copy (or many copies) in the genome. These duplications allow the free modification of one copy by mutation, selection, and drift, while the second copy continues to produce a functional protein. This allows the original function for the protein to be kept, while evolutionary forces tweak the copy until it functions in a new way. According to this definition, one species is distinguished from another by the possibility of matings between individuals from each species to produce fertile offspring. Many species are similar enough that hybrid offspring are possible and may often occur in nature, but for the majority of species this rule generally holds. In fact, the presence of hybrids between similar species suggests that they may have descended from a single interbreeding species and that the speciation process may not yet be completed. Darwin envisioned this process as a branching event and diagrammed the process in the only illustration found in On the Origin of Species (Figure 11. For speciation to occur, two new populations must be formed from one original population, and they must evolve in such a way that it becomes impossible for individuals from the two new populations to interbreed. Allopatric speciation, meaning speciation in "other homelands," involves a geographic separation of populations from a parent species and subsequent evolution. Sympatric speciation, meaning speciation in the "same homeland," involves speciation occurring within a parent species while remaining in one location. Biologists think of speciation events as the splitting of one ancestral species into two descendant species. There is no reason why there might not be more than two species formed at one time except that it is less likely and such multiple events can also be conceptualized as single splits occurring close in time. Speciation through Geographic Separation A geographically continuous population has a gene pool that is relatively homogeneous. Thus, the frequency of an allele at one end of a distribution will be similar to the frequency of the allele at the other end.

Although animals range in complexity from simple sea sponges to human beings, most members share certain features. Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms that ingest their food and usually develop into motile creatures with a fixed body plan. Most members of the animal kingdom have differentiated tissues of four main classes-nervous, muscular, connective, and epithelial-that are specialized to perform different functions. Most animals reproduce sexually, leading to a developmental sequence that is relatively similar across the animal kingdom. Organisms in the animal kingdom are classified based on their body morphology and development. Animals with a body cavity may be either coelomates or pseudocoelomates, depending on which tissue gives rise to the coelom. Coelomates are further divided into two groups called protostomes and deuterostomes, based on a number of developmental characteristics. Sponges have multiple cell types that are geared toward executing various metabolic functions. Cnidarians possess a well-formed digestive system and carry out extracellular digestion. They have a life cycle that involves morphologically distinct forms-medusoid and polypoid-at various stages in their life cycle. They lack circulatory and respiratory systems, and have a rudimentary excretory system. Trematodes have complex life cycles involving a secondary mollusk host and a primary host in which sexual reproduction takes place. Embryonic development is external and proceeds through larval stages separated by molts. Arthropods represent the most successful phylum of animals on Earth, in terms of number of species as well as the number of individuals. Within the phylum, classification is based on mouthparts, number of appendages, and modifications of appendages. Many mollusks secrete a calcareous shell for protection, but in other species, the shell is reduced or absent. This cavity is distinct from the coelomic cavity, which the adult animal retains, surrounding the heart. Polychaete annelids have parapodia that participate in locomotion and respiration. This phylum of animals bear a calcareous endoskeleton composed of ossicles covered by a spiny skin. The madreporite is the point of entry and exit for water for the water vascular system. Chordata contains two clades of invertebrates: Urochordata (tunicates) and Cephalochordata (lancelets), together with the vertebrates. Hagfishes are eel-like scavengers that feed on dead invertebrates and other fishes. Lampreys are characterized by a toothed, funnel-like sucking mouth, and some species are parasitic on other fishes. Gnathostomes include the jawed fishes (cartilaginous and bony fishes) as well as all other tetrapods. As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs, although some species of salamanders and all caecilians are limbless. The life cycle of amphibians consists of two distinct stages: the larval stage and metamorphosis to an adult stage. The amniotes are distinguished from amphibians by the presence of a terrestrially adapted egg protected by amniotic membranes. A key adaptation that permitted reptiles to live on land was the development of scaly skin. Humans are most closely related to Primates, all of which have adaptations for climbing trees, although not all species are arboreal. Other characteristics of primates are brains that are larger than those of other mammals, claws that have been modified into flattened nails, and typically one young per pregnancy, stereoscopic vision, and a trend toward holding the body upright. Chordates are more closely related to echinoderms than to rotifers according to the figure. Members of Chondrichthyes differ from members of Osteichthyes by having a.

Patients with pseudopapilloedema and other acquired causes of optic disc swelling (for example, retinal venous occlusion, uveitis, optic neuritis, ischaemic optic neuropathy, optic nerve compression, and optic nerve tumours) will need full ophthalmic and neurological examination and investigation. Myelinated nerve fibres the pale optic disc There are many causes of a pale optic disc and it is vital to make the correct diagnosis, as many of them are treatable. These include compressive lesions, glaucoma, vitamin deficiency, the presence of toxic substances (for example, lead or some drugs), and infective conditions such as syphilis. Swollen disc secondary to central retinal vein occlusion Headaches and the eye Most patients who present with a history of "headache" around the eye do not have serious disease. The following features in the history and examination should raise suspicion of serious disease. Aetiologies of the swollen optic disc Pseudopapilloedema Optic disc drusen Hypermetropia Congenital anomaly of hyaloid system Papilloedema Blockage of ventricular system Blockage of cerebrospinal fluid absorption Dural venous sinus thrombosis Space occupying lesion Hypersecretion by choroid plexus tumour Idiopathic (benign) intracranial hypertension Acquired swelling of the disc Eye disease-Retinal vein occlusion or uveitis Vascular-Hypertension or ischaemic optic neuropathy Inflammation-Optic neuritis Drug related-Ethambutol, isoniazid, or streptomycin Infiltrative-Sarcoid, lymphoma, or leukaemia Metabolic-Thyroid eye disease Compression-Optic nerve glioma or meningioma Disc tumour-Glioma or haemangioma, or metastatic the nature of the headache-Headaches that cause sleep disturbance or that are worse on waking or with coughing, suggest raised intracranial pressure. Temporal tenderness in patients over the age of 60 with symptoms of aching muscles and malaise suggest giant cell arteritis. Visual disturbance-If there is a change in visual acuity that cannot be corrected by a pinhole test, serious disease should be suspected. A history of haloes around lights (caused by transient oedema of the cornea when the intraocular pressure rises) suggests attacks of angle closure glaucoma. A red eye-In acute glaucoma the eye is usually red, injected, and tender, and the acuity is diminished. Defective ocular movements-Restricted ocular movements on the same side as the pain may indicate serious disease, including orbital cellulitis (from infected sinuses), inflammatory lesions in the orbit, and compressive lesions causing nerve palsies (for example, a posterior communicating aneurysm causing third nerve palsy and pain around the eye). Pupillary abnormalities and ocular motility problems may be present in so called "cluster headaches" and "ophthalmoplegic migraine," although these are relatively benign conditions. However, patients with headache around the eye, together with ocular motility or pupillary abnormalities, should be investigated to exclude serious lesions. Swelling, atrophy, or cupping of the optic disc-A patient with headaches around the eye in addition to any of these symptoms should be referred. The swelling and atrophy may be due to a compressive lesion and pathological cupping suggests a chronic form of glaucoma. Optic atrophy Glaucomatous cupping 81 14 Global impact of eye disease Impact of blindness worldwide Every five seconds an adult goes blind somewhere in the world, and every 60 seconds a child goes blind. There are also about 135 million people who are visually impaired and who need help. The impact of medical progress has been greatest in the more affluent countries of the developed world, where economic resources have facilitated significant advances in tackling blinding diseases. Two hundred years ago the main cause of blindness in western Europe was smallpox; 100 years ago this was replaced by ophthalmia neonatorum. Although there are success stories in the battle against blindness, it is important to remember that blinding diseases still represent one of the major problems facing developing nations. Photograph reproduced with permission from the Christian Blind Mission Other* (24%) Onchocerciasis (1%) Cataract (43%) Main causes of blindness in the developing world today Vitamin A deficiency (6%) Trachoma (11%) Cataract Glaucoma Trachoma Vitamin A deficiency Onchocerciasis * Diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, Glaucoma (15%) optic neuropathy, etc Pie chart of causes of world blindness Causes of blindness in the developing world Cataract About 20 million people are blind in both eyes because of cataracts. These people could all be treated if they had access to cataract surgery, and currently there are large scale programmes under way in many developing countries. Glaucoma If glaucoma is detected at an early stage then blindness is usually avoidable. However, long term topical glaucoma therapy is not practicable in many low income countries, because of cost, compliance, and access issues. In areas of the world where angle closure glaucoma has a high prevalence, laser therapy (peripheral iridotomy) has the potential to prevent much blinding disease. Basic hygiene and public health measures can dramatically reduce the prevalence of blinding infection. Severe trachomatous scarring of tarsal conjunctiva Conjunctival infection with Chlamydia trachomatis Vitamin A deficiency Vitamin A is needed to maintain epithelial surfaces (including the ocular surface) and to make retinal photoreceptor pigments. Deficiency of vitamin A (xerophthalmia) causes ocular surface dryness, scarring, infection with possible perforation, and night blindness. Vitamin A supplementation can eradicate this important blinding disease, which, coupled with common childhood infections (such as measles), is a major cause of blindness in children.

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Jaap studied Information Science with special emphasis on the application and usage of knowledge in organizations, along with the interaction between people, organizations, and any existing information and knowledge systems. Benjamin Flander, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Faculty of Criminal Justice and Security, University of Maribor, Slovenia. His areas of specialization are constitutional law and human rights in criminal justice systems. He is the coauthor of recently published chapters in Trust and Legitimacy in Criminal Justice (2015, edited by Gorazd Mesko and Justice Tankebe) and International Developments and Practices in Investigative Interviewing and Interrogation (edited by David Walsh et al. Lately, his research interests include Nietzsche, postmodernism, advanced critical legal studies, and critical criminology. He has retained an interest in law teaching and research as well as legal practice in the belief that the one informs the other and has worked at several universities in England and Ireland. He was seconded to the University of the South Pacific from 1995 to 1997 where he became the director of the Institute for Justice and Applied Legal Studies. In 1998, he was appointed head of Law and professor of Legal Education at the University of Derby, and in 2000, he joined the College of Law as professor and director of Pro Bono Services and Clinical Legal Education. From 2006 to 2010, Richard acted as an independent consultant on a variety of projects in the United Kingdom and further afield Downloaded by [84. He was director of Clinical Programmes at the York Law School, University of York, from 2010 to 2016 and helped pioneer a fully integrated clinical approach to study using problem-based learning. He has published widely on clinical legal education issues, in the legal skills field, and on various substantive law matters. He remains committed to learning by doing and to improving access to justice more generally. She is currently a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee on the Dialogue on Societal Aspects of Security Research that is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. In addition, Haverkamp serves on the Research Advisory Board of the Federal Criminal Police Office. Professor Haverkamp completed her doctoral thesis on "Electronic Monitoring of Criminal Offenders" at the Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law in Freiburg, Germany. Her habilitation thesis on "Women in Prison against the Background of the European Prison Rules" was completed at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich in 2008. Jackie Jones is a professor of Feminist Legal Studies at the University of the West of England and a human rights activist. Jackie has written several pieces on human trafficking and helped progress the agenda on human trafficking in Wales from 2007 to 2010 working with Parliamentarians on awareness raising and a specific Wales report. His main research interests include penal sanctions and sanctioning systems, juvenile justice, victim/offender mediation and other forms of restorative justice, victimology, organized crime, money laundering and the financing of terrorism, confiscation, and asset recovery. He is a coeditor of Balkan Criminology News, the newsletter of the Max Planck Partner Group for Balkan Criminology, and a member of the international advisory board of Restorative Justice-An International Journal. Besides his academic activities, he volunteers as a member of the board of the European Forum for Restorative Justice, currently as its chair, and as a member of the scientific council of the German association of victim support groups (ado). He is also the assistant director for the Institute for Canadian Urban Research Studies. His research interests include environmental criminology, geography of crime, police studies, crime prevention and crime reduction, quantitative research methods, court sentencing patterns, and historical criminology. His main research interests include the resocialization of offenders, evaluation of different treatment programs, juvenile delinquency, psychological diagnostic of prisoners and sex offenders, expert testimonies in court, fear of crime, and community crime prevention, among other areas. Kury has published some 700 articles in national and international journals and has edited a score of books covering such topics as crime, criminology, forensic psychology, family, and criminal behavior. His most recent publications include the following: Punitivity-International Developments. Benoit Leclerc is an associate professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia.