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J. Connor, M.B. B.CH., M.B.B.Ch., Ph.D.

Associate Professor, University of Washington School of Medicine

Steel-making by-products, including basic oxygen furnace and electric arc furnace slag, are derived from the reaction between flux materials. In terms of abundance and reaction rates, slag is one of the most promising feedstocks for carbon mineralization. In addition, its high CaO content hinders direct use in bound building materials, since it causes a decrease in durability due to hydration and swelling when exposed to moisture. Carbon dioxide treatment and conversion to carbonates circumvents these issues, thereby increasing the utilization potential of the slag. Brines are a class of wastewater that contain elevated levels of undersaturated salts (such as chlorides, nitrates, and soluble sulfates), and at times ultrafine solid particles (such as colloidal and clay-sized particles) not separable by low-cost gravitational or filtration methods. On the other hand, alkaline brines are widely available around the world, as they are associated with diverse activities such as aluminum production, oil and gas extraction, power generation facilities, and seawater desalination. Carbonation of oil/gas brines also leads to co-precipitation of toxic heavy metals. Addressing the different types of products and applications of carbon mineralization Direct and indirect carbon mineralization of various natural and industrial alkaline materials offers the opportunity to produce a range of tailored carbonation products and by-products as construction and building materials [Zhao et al. Process adaptation or post-processing can be employed to further expand the range of products to include higher-value ones. A scheme of carbon mineralization and of the range of its products, which depends on feedstock, operating route, and reaction conditions, is reported in Figure 3. In construction applications carbonate solids can provide cementitious binding of the components of the building product, or structural support (as an aggregate or filler). Furthermore, the carbonation of alkaline industrial waste may also be applied to immobilize or extract heavy metals, stabilize chemically metastable mineral phases, or even store energy or provide carbon to microalgae. Carbon dioxide utilization has entered the cement and concrete segment from a variety of technical approaches. Carbon mineralization may also be applied as a treatment technique to improve the environmental behavior. The Concrete Sector: Great Potential for Carbon Mineralization (Left): Image courtesy of Timothy Oliver. These aggregates can be used to manufacture concrete or concrete-based building materials, hence replacing gravel aggregates. The strength benefits available through carbon mineralization present an opportunity to reduce the amount of cement used for an equivalent strength-grade concrete. This concept adds economic value to carbon mineralization associated with both metal concentrate and carbonate production, the latter being tied to the production of building materials. Similar approaches could extract rare earth metals from existing stockpiles of mining waste. The carbonated products could then be used for producing building materials, or they could be left in the ground. An alternative deployment would use carbonate solid precipitates to bind and immobilize deleterious metals and materials. Implementing an ex situ indirect process route can produce high-purity mineral carbonates, such as precipitated calcium carbonates or precipitated magnesium carbonates, which have even greater value as a chemical feedstock for paper and paint production, displacing resource extraction routes for conventional materials [Zhao et al. Hydrated Mg-carbonate minerals produced through carbon mineralization of brines and alkaline solids have high solubility, which facilitates their use as a carbon storage and transport medium. Microalgae have the potential to significantly intensify biofuel production processes, but their growth requires carbon. For some mines, this limit may be on par with the greenhouse gas production associated with mine operations, opening up the possibility that some mine operations could become greenhouse gas neutral. Activation of feedstock can dramatically improve reaction performance, but surface control of these reactions is poorly understood. Concerning the application of carbon mineralization in the building sector, the key issue is meeting and guaranteeing product performance over time.

Thus studies that examine cancer incidence are particularly useful for these types of cancer. The high-exposure community studies also have the advantage for testicular cancer of including the age period of greatest risk, as the median age at diagnosis is 33 years. The two occupational cohorts in Minnesota and West Virginia (most recently updated, respectively, in Raleigh et al. The project was funded by 3M, but the company was not involved in the preparation or approval of the report. The authors evaluated the published studies based on the study design, subjects, exposure assessment, outcome assessment, control for confounding, and sources of bias. They followed the Bradford Hill guidelines on the strength of the association, consistency, plausibility, and biological gradient in reaching their conclusion. They found a lack of concordance between community exposures and occupational exposures one or two magnitudes higher than those for the general population. The discrepant findings across the study populations were described as likely due to chance, confounding, and/or bias (Chang et al. Subchronic studies in monkeys and rats found decreased body weight, increased liver weight accompanied by microscopic lesions, and decreased serum cholesterol. The most prominent microscopic lesion of the liver in both monkeys and rats was centrilobular hepatocellular hypertrophy. Chronic exposure studies were conducted in monkeys, rats, and mice providing information on tumor incidences for both rats and mice. Effects on development and reproduction were found in both rats (a 2-generation study) and mice (male fertility) and included developmental delays and increased neonatal mortality. Following the recovery period, the animals were sacrificed with collection of serum samples for analysis. Corneal opacity and corrosion were seen at concentrations greater than or equal to 810 mg/m3. The animals lost body weight and exhibited lethargy, labored breathing, diarrhea, and severe skin irritation (Kennedy et al. There were three monkeys in the 2- and 20-mg/kg/day groups and one monkey in the control group. Animals were observed twice daily for mortality and moribundity and were examined at least once daily for signs of poor health or abnormal behavior. Body weights were recorded weekly and food consumption was assessed qualitatively. Blood samples also were collected from each animal on day 2 (approximately 24 hours after the first dose) for clinical chemistry measurements. The adrenals, liver, pancreas, spleen, and testes from each animal were examined microscopically. There were no clinical signs of toxicity in the treated groups and there was no effect on body weight. There was no evidence of peroxisome proliferation or cell proliferation in the liver, testes, or pancreas of the treated monkeys. No adverse effects were noted in either the gross or clinical pathology evaluations. Body weight was no different in the rats treated for 1 and 3 days than in the control rats. Liver weight of rats treated for 1 day was no different than control liver weight. The relative liver weight of rats treated for 3 days was significantly increased (p<0. Absolute liver weight (1 mg/kg/day) and relative liver weight (10 mg/kg/day) were significantly increased. The decrease in cholesterol and triglycerides at the lowest dose are not necessarily adverse. Data on several immunological endpoints were reported as part of the Loveless et al.

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