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The late-immature thrombocyte is an oval cell that has the appearance of the elongate, mature thrombocyte, except the cytoplasm is a pale blue and the nuclear chromatin is less condensed. Lymphopoiesis Lymphocyte development may be seen occasionally when evaluating hematopoietic tissue (Color 9. Three distinctive stages can be identified for lymphocyte development: lymphoblasts, prolymphocytes and mature lymphocytes. The nucleus has smooth chromatin, in comparison to the mature cell, and contains distinct nucleoli. Prolymphocytes resemble lymphoblasts but are slightly smaller, lack nucleoli and have a less basophilic cytoplasm. In normal lymphoid tissue, lymphoblasts and prolymphocytes represent less than ten percent of the lymphoid cells. Thus, the majority of the cells should be mature lymphocytes with the heavy nuclear chromatin clumping, high N:C ratio and scant amount of blue, homogeneous cytoplasm. Other Bone Marrow Cells Other cells frequently encountered in bone marrow samples include osteoclasts, osteoblasts, monocytes, plasma cells and mitotic figures. The abundant cytoplasm is weakly basophilic and often contains vacuoles and small red granules of various shapes. The abundant, foamy, basophilic cytoplasm contains a prominent clear space (Golgi) that is located a distance from the nucleus. Assoku R, Pehale W, Buxton A: An immunological basis for the anemia of acute Salmonella gallinarium infection of chickens. Christie G: Hematological and biochemical findings in an anemia induced by daily bleeding of ten-weekold cockerels. Christie G: Hematological and biochemical findings in an experimentally produced hemolytic anemia in eight-week-old brown leghorn cockerels. Daimon T, Caxton-Martins A: Electron microscopic and enzyme cytochemical studies on granules of mature chicken granular leucocytes. Lloyd M: Heavy metal ingestion: Medical management and gastroscopic foreign body removal. Osculati F: Fine structural localization of acid phosphatase and arylsulfatase in the chick heterophil leukocytes. Yuassa N, et al: Isolation and some characteristics of an agent inducing anemia in chicks. C ytology is designed to be a rapid, inexpensive "in-house" diagnostic procedure, and the use of cytodiagnosis should be easily within the realm of any veterinary clinician. The basic cytodiagnosis of inflammation, tissue hyperplasia, malignant neoplasia and normal cellularity are easily differentiated from each other (see Figures 10. One who is well versed in mammalian cytodiagnosis should have little trouble in the interpretation of avian samples. Cytology can then be used to monitor the success of therapy by evaluating changes in microbial and cell populations within or on the host. Cytology should be considered as a part of the minimum database in birds with discharges, masses or swellings. Cytological samples are of greatest value if they are collected fresh and immediately processed for evaluation. To obtain a cytologic sample and send it to an outside laboratory defeats the purpose and usefulness of cytology. This will serve to improve understanding of the pathogenesis and cellular effects of a disease process. Cytologic sample collection methods can be divided into two broad categories: aspiration and contact smears. Sample Collection by Aspiration Fine-needle aspiration biopsy is a simple, inexpensive procedure for obtaining material for cytologic examination (Figure 10. Using an alcohol swab, the skin overlying the biopsy site is cleansed and allowed to dry.

Serial serum drug concentrations and prolonged anticholinergic toxicity after benztropine (Cogentin) overdose. Prospective study on concentration-efficacy and concentration-toxicity: Correlations with lamotrigine serum levels. Reproductive effects of valproate, carbamazepine, and oxcarbazepine in men with epilepsy. Neurotoxic Poisons Trihexiphenidyl It is also referred to as benzhexol hydrochloride and is used in the treatment of Parkinsonism, extrapyramidal syndromes, and nerve gas poisoning. Sudden withdrawal can cause anxiety, irritability, insomnia, headache, sweating, and tachycardia. Overdose causes anticholinergic manifestations such as confusion, hallucinations, dry mouth, dilated pupils, diplopia, tachycardia, and hyperthermia. Adverse effects include skin rash, dry mouth, mydriasis, diplopia, nausea, and tachycardia. Risk of anticholinergic side effects is greatly increased when administered with other anticholinergic drugs, and may result in paralytic ileus or hyperthermia which can be fatal. Overdose produces weakness, confusion, depression, vomiting, urinary retention, constipation, paralytic ileus, hyperthermia, heat stroke, and hallucinations. Inhalational Agents: nitrous oxide, halothane, isoflurane, enflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. Intravenous Agents*: thiopentone, methohexitone, thiamylal, diazepam, lorazepam, midazolam, etomidate, ketamine, fentanyl and its derivatives, morphine, pethidine, butorphanol, and propofol. Local Anaesthetics-Cocaine, lignocaine, bupivacaine, chloroprocaine, etidocaine, mepivacaine, prilocaine, procaine, ropivacaine, tetracaine, dibucaine, dyclonine, pramoxine, benzocaine, proparacaine, etc. Mode of Action inhAlAtionAl AnAesthetics nitrous oxide Synonyms Dinitrogen monoxide; Laughing gas; Hyponitrous acid anhydride; Factitious air. Nitrous oxide is a gas that acts as a central nervous system depressant and can cause asphyxiation by oxygen displacement. This produces a deficiency in available active B12 and the results mimic B12 deprivation states. Nitrous oxide has been demonstrated to be a partial agonist at mu, kappa, and sigma receptors of the endogenous opioid system. Adverse Effects Physical Appearance Nitrous oxide is a colourless gas with a slightly sweetish odour and taste. Nitrous oxide is abundant in the atmosphere as a result of bacterial decomposition of organic nitrogen compounds in soil. Uses As a sole agent, nitrous oxide is used intermittently to provide analgesia for dental and obstetric procedures. It is also used as a foaming agent for whipped cream, to make nitrates from alkali metals, as an oxidant for * Also referred to as Induction agents. When it is inhaled, compliant air-containing spaces such as the bowel will increase in size, while noncompliant spaces such as eustachian tubes will increase in pressure. Nitrous oxide has been reported to cause mild hypertension when used as an anaesthetic. Interstitial emphysema and pneumomediastinum have been reported following inhalation from whipped cream dispensers. Respiratory depression, increased muscle tone, hypertension, mydriasis, cardiovascular failure. Chronic use (or abuse, especially by hospital and dental personnel) can lead to bone marrow depression, polyneuropathy, megaloblastic changes, and death. Impotence has been reported as an early sensory complaint associated with nitrous oxide-induced myeloneuropathy Many of the neurological and haematopoietic effects of nitrous oxide are believed to be due to the selective inactivation of vitamin B12. Bone marrow depression with resultant leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and severe megaloblastic anaemia has been noted following chronic or intermittent inhalation of nitrous oxide. Uses Halothane can be used in combination with oxygen, or other gas mixtures such as nitrous oxide and oxygen for general anaesthesia.

Despite these methodological strengths, there were no clear-cut performance impairing effects of hangover in this study. Some other research indicates that hangover is accompanied by impairment in behavioral and cognitive functioning. Significant detrimental effects of hangover were found for 3 of 6 variance measures and 1 of 6 performance measures. Similarly, other studies have found impairment due to hangover on only some of the tests employed in the research. More research is needed to address the role of vestibular functioning in hangover. Inconsistencies in the hangover literature probably reflect the fact that behavioral impairment during hangover is influenced by numerous factors, including sleepiness, fatigue, mood, and motivation to behave in a non-impaired manner. Moreover, there are individual differences in the frequency and duration of hangover, even among persons with similar drinking practices. Hangover effects are poorly characterized, and are an important topic for further research. There are a number of concepts which can be used to describe the characteristics of impairment tests, including scaling of results, applicability to field settings, reliability, validity, sensitivity, and specificity. Results may be binary (impaired or not), ordinal rankings (low, medium, or high impairment), or quantitative scores. In other instances, continuous scores are desirable because they inform about the level of impairment. One requirement is that a test must have adequate measurement properties in a field setting. A test may have demonstrated reliability and validity in the laboratory, but these properties may or may not generalize to field settings. Field applications involve a loss of control over numerous variables that can influence testing. Reliability and validity properties in the field may be far different from the laboratory, in part because data from a known sober condition are not available for comparison. Ideally, a test must be easily administered in a standard way by test administrators, and readily understood by test takers. The level of technical skill required for administering the test, collection of data and interpretation of results should be acquired with a reasonably short duration of training. Any required instrumentation should not require extensive maintenance, and should not be easily subject to interference by test takers. Importantly, impairment tests must have credibility with law enforcement officers and the wider criminal justice system. That is, a reliable test is one that will yield a similar result across multiple testings in the same person (test-retest reliability), or across multiple test administrators or raters examining the same person (inter-rater reliability). Furthermore, an ideal test should show reliability across testings in an intoxicated person. That is, multiple tests taken at the same level of impairment would show relatively little variation in the obtained scores. If obtained scores are not reliable, the results may be caused by factors other than impairment, such as variation in test administration or scoring. The validity of impairment tests refers to the extent to which these tests assess alcohol-related impairment, rather than other factors. Face validity refers to the extent to which law enforcement personnel and test takers believe that a test does measure alcohol impairment; many field sobriety tests have high levels of face validity. Construct validity refers to the adequacy and explanatory power of scientific concepts such as alcohol impairment. If alcohol-related impairment is highly variable across different behaviors, this will reduce the validity of any one test in measuring such a diffuse concept. In contrast, some level of reliability is needed in order for a test to show validity. The degree to which reliability is imperfect tends to place an upper limit on the degree of validity that can be shown by a test. In some cases, there probably is little impairment to detect when a test does not reveal impairment. In other cases, however, impaired performance is likely present, but a test is not sensitive enough to detect it.