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The first compound that is produced in the light independent reaction contains four carbon atoms. Avoiding photorespiration Why do tropical grasses need to do something different from other plants in the light independent stage of photosynthesis Tropical grasses such as maize, sorghum and sugar cane have evolved a method of avoiding photorespiration. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by another group of cells, the mesophyll cells, which are in contact with air (Figure 13. Cambridge International A Level Biology Still inside the mesophyll cells, the oxaloacetate is converted to malate, and this is passed on to the bundle sheath cells. Enzymes in C4 plants generally have higher optimum temperatures than those in C3 plants. The chloroplasts capture light and carry out the light dependent reactions but not the Calvin cycle. Research is taking place into the possibility of producing genetically modified rice that uses the C4 pathway in photosynthesis. An absorption spectrum is a graph of the absorbance of different wavelengths of light by a pigment (Figure 13. An action spectrum is a graph of the rate of photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light (Figure 13. This shows the effectiveness of the different wavelengths, which is, of course, related to their absorption and to their energy content. Trapping light energy Chloroplasts contain several different pigments, and these different pigments absorb different wavelengths of light. The photosynthetic pigments of higher plants form two groups: the chlorophylls (primary pigments) and the carotenoids (accessory pigments) (Table 13. Group chlorophylls carotenoids a chlorophyll a chlorophyll b carotenoids Pigment chlorophyll a chlorophyll b carotene xanthophyll Colour yellow-green blue-green orange yellow Absorbance 400 b 450 Table 13. Cambridge International A Level Biology If you illuminate a solution of chlorophyll a or b with ultraviolet light, you will see a red fluorescence. The electrons return to their unexcited state and the absorbed energy is transferred to the surroundings as thermal energy and as light at a longer (less energetic) wavelength than that which was absorbed, and is seen as the red fluorescence. In the functioning photosynthetic system, it is this energy that drives the process of photosynthesis. You can easily extract chloroplast pigments from a leaf to see how many pigments are present, by using paper chromatography as shown in Figure 13. You can calculate the Rf value for each pigment, using this equation: Rf = distance travelled by pigment spot distance travelled by solvent carotenoids chlorophyll a the solvent rises up the paper carrying each pigment at a different speed. These will vary depending on the solvent used, but in general carotenoids have Rf values close to 1, chlorophyll b has a much lower Rf value and chlorophyll a has an Rf value between those of carotenoids and chlorophyll b. In the light dependent reactions, water is split by photolysis to give hydrogen ions, electrons and oxygen. During these reactions, the photosynthetic pigments of the chloroplast absorb light energy and give out excited electrons. This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco), which is the most common enzyme in the world. Chloroplasts are adapted for the efficient absorption of light for the process of photosynthesis. When a process is affected by more than one factor, the rate of the process will be limited by the factor closest to its lowest value. The rate of photosynthesis is subject to various such limiting factors, including light intensity and wavelength, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.

Iodine deficiency also appears to be an important modifier of the risk of radiation-induced thyroid cancer, and there is some evidence that iodine deficiency enhances the risk of thyroid cancer following radiation exposure. Finally, relatively little has been published regarding thyroid outcomes other than thyroid cancer, although one study has reported an elevated risk of benign thyroid tumors and there have been reports of increases in autoimmune disease and antithyroid antibodies following childhood exposure to Chernobyl. Evidence from epidemiologic studies regarding the risk of leukemia in the general population reflects low-dose-rate exposure (primarily from 137Cs), which has occurred for a number of years and will continue to occur in the future. These resident populations were exposed at all ages, but studies of residents are primarily of persons exposed as children and/or in utero. At present, the available evidence from ecologic studies does not convincingly indicate an increased risk of leukemia among persons exposed in utero to radiation from Chernobyl. There are no data from analytic epidemiologic studies in which individual dose estimates are available. The existing evidence does not support the conclusion that the rates of childhood leukemia have increased as a result of radiation exposure from the Chernobyl accident. However, ecologic studies of the types conducted to date are not particularly sensitive to detecting relatively small changes in the incidence of a disease as uncommon as childhood leukemia over time or by different geographic areas. The single analytical study is insufficient to draw conclusions regarding leukemia risk after exposure of children to Chernobyl. There is also no convincing evidence that the incidence of leukemia has increased in adult residents of the exposed populations that have been studied in Russia and Ukraine. However, few studies of the general adult population have been conducted, and they have employed ecologic designs that are relatively insensitive. There has been relatively little study of the incidence or mortality from solid cancers other than thyroid cancer in populations exposed to radiation from the Chernobyl accident. They reported increases of cancer incidence during the periods, but generally the excesses were relatively small and not statistically significant. No descriptive or analytical epidemiologic studies of breast cancer risk in populations exposed to radiation from Chernobyl have been published in the peer-reviewed literature; however, one monograph has cited elevated breast cancer incidence rates based on Ukrainian registries. Similarly, although no descriptive or analytical epidemiologic studies of bladder or kidney cancer risk in relation to Chernobyl have been published in the peer-reviewed literature, there has been a series of papers investigating aspects of possible radiation carcinogenesis in these organs. Four ecologic studies of populations exposed to natural background radiation have been reported. They provide important quantitative estimates of risk as a function of dose, primarily from 131I. These studies did not find any association between disease rates and indicators of high background levels of radiation, and they do not provide any quantitative estimates of disease risk. Three ecologic studies of children of adults exposed to radiation have been published, with a focus on preconception parental exposure and the risk of leukemia and lymphoma in the offspring of exposed parents. Although there is some evidence of an increased risk associated with measures of individual dose, the findings are based on very small numbers of cases and the results across studies are not consistent. In summary, none of the studies provide quantitative information from dose-response analyses or quantitative estimates of the risk of disease associated with exposure, and results across studies are inconsistent. There have been three cohort studies published regarding the risk of cancer in children of adults exposed to radiation. None of the three provide quantitative estimates of risk based on dose-response analyses, and the results across studies are not consistent. Thus, there is little conclusive evidence from epidemiologic studies of a link between parental preconception exposure to ionizing radiation and childhood leukemia or other cancers. Other possible indices of the occurrence of transmissible genetic damage from preconception exposures include spontaneous abortions, congenital malformations, neonatal mortality, stillbirths, and the sex ratio of offspring. Relatively few epidemiologic studies have been conducted to evaluate these outcomes in relation to preconception radiation exposure, and there is no consistent evidence of an association of any such outcomes with exposure to environmental sources of radiation. Studies of exposure to 131I from therapeutic and diagnostic uses provide some evidence of a small increase in thyroid cancer, but the small increase observed is likely due to the underlying thyroid condition, not to radiation exposure. No excess risk of thyroid cancer was found in residents exposed to radiation from Hanford, and only a slight excess risk of thyroid neoplasms was found associated with radioiodine exposure of Utah residents from the Nevada Test Site. Recent evidence from three populationbased case-control studies indicates that exposure to radiation from Chernobyl is associated with an increased risk of thyroid cancer and that the relationship is dose dependent.

A stimulus is a form of energy such as electromagnetic (light), mechanical (pressure), or sound waves. This interpretation of the stimulus leads to a determination of the appropriate response. Cell Body - this takes stimuli from different dendrites and compiles the energy into one signal, like a funnel for fluids. Axon Hillock - this is the swelling around the connection between the cell body and the axon. Myelin Sheath - this is a lipid layer of insulation around the axon created by Schwann Cells. It prevents the electrical energy of the neuron from burning the overlying muscle tissue. Synapse - this is the gap between neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell. Neurotransmitter - this is the chemical, produced by the neuron, used to transmit the signal across the gap. These cells produce Myelin - a "Lipid" based substance that is a poor conductor of electricity. The electricity traveling through the nerves then burns the muscles into permanent painful contractions until death. Chemically-Gated Ion Channels - these respond to chemically charged ligands in the cellular fluids. Voltage-Gated Ion Channels - these respond to the "charge" concentrations because of the ligands. This phase refers to the pumping out of K from the neuron in an attempt to return to a resting potential state. This phase refers to the excess pumping out of K from the cell; so the cell will pull some back in. This is necessary to re-establish a Resting Potential; when the electrochemical concentration gradient exists. Refractory Period - this term refers to the period of time when a neuron cannot make a new impulse. These require a neurotransmitter (chemical ligand) to deliver the message across the synapse. Step 3: Ca++ push the synaptic vesicles, containing the neurotransmitter, toward the cell membrane. Step 4: the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the synapse. Step 7: the binding causes the receptor proteins (which may be a Na+ chemical gated channels) to change shape and open. Step 9: Cholinesterase will break down the Acetylcholine causing the receptor proteins to close back.

Syndromes

• An ECG or heart tracing may be abnormal during attacks.
• Exercise daily, including range-of-motion exercises.
• Reduced IQ
• You have ongoing groin pain for no reason.
• Malnutrition from serious illnesses
• Chest x-ray or chest CT scan
• Diarrhea
• Kidney tumor (renal cell carcinoma)
• Lungs
• Is the baby thirsty?

Congressional Record 415 In history of bills, sequence is: Senate bills, Senate joint resolutions, Senate concurrent resolutions, and Senate resolutions; then House bills, House joint resolutions, House concurrent resolutions, and House resolutions: S. Congressional committee staff members are responsible for gathering the information printed in these publications. Report language is compiled and submitted along with the bill language to the clerks of the respective Houses. In many instances the reports are camera-ready copy, needing only insertion of the assigned report number. Style and format of congressional reports Below are rules that should be followed for the makeup of congressional numbered reports. All excerpts to be set in 10-point type, cut in 2 ems on each side, except as noted in paragraph 3 below. The following are to be set in 10-point type, but not cut in: (a) Letters that are readily identified as such by salutation and signature. An amendment in the nature of a substitute to be set in 8-point type, but quotations from such amendment later in the report to be treated as excerpts, but set full measure (see paragraph 10 below). Any committee print having a report head indicated on original copy to be set in report type and style. Committee prints not having a report head indicated on original copy to be set in committee print style; that is, excerpts to be set in 8 point, full measure. If a committee print set as indicated in paragraph 8 is later submitted as a report or included in a report, and the type is available for pickup, such type shall be picked up and used as is in the report. On matter that is cut in on the left only for purposes of breakdown, no space is used above and below, but on all matter that is cut in on both sides, 4 points are used above and below. Because of the indentions and the limited number of element identifiers, do not squeeze bills that are submitted as excerpts. In reports of immigration cases, set memorandums in full measure unless preceded or followed directly by committee language. Order of printing (Senate reports only): (1) Report, (2) minority or additional views, (3) the Cordon rule, 2 (4) appendix (if any). In Senate reports, "Changes in Existing Law" begins a new page if following "views. Minority or additional views are printed only if they have been signed by the authoring congressperson. The authority granted herein shall terminate on June 30, [1956] 1959, or upon any prior date which the Congress by concurrent resolution or the President may designate. Reports and Hearings 423 424 Chapter 20 Reports and Hearings 425 426 Chapter 20 Reports and Hearings 427 428 Chapter 20 Reports and Hearings 429 430 Chapter 20 Reports and Hearings 431 432 Chapter 20 Index [Numbers in parentheses refer to rules; bold indicates chapter heading] A Abbreviations and Letter Symbols (9. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals: Eighth Edition the National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Hendriksen, Netherlands Vaccine Institute, Bilthoven, the Netherlands (until March 2009) Dennis F. McClintock, Institute for Mind and Biology, University of Chicago, Illinois Leticia V. Womack, Department of Veterinary Pathology, Texas A&M University, College Station (until June 2010) i Copyright National Academy of Sciences. The review of this report was overseen by John Dowling, Harvard University, and John Vandenbergh, North Carolina State University. The Guide is predicated on the understanding that the exercise of professional judgment both upholds the central notion of performance standards and obviates the need for more stringent regulations. An additional group has been added for monkeys, and chimpanzees are separated in a new category. Taken together, the practical effect of these laws, regulations, and policies is to establish a system of self-regulation and regulatory oversight that binds researchers and institutions using animals. Both researchers and institutions have affirmative duties of humane care and use that are supported by practical, ethical, and scientific principles.