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Beneath the cortex is the limbic system, which consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, and septal area. These structures are where emotions and feelings are believed to originate, and they are important for sexual behavior. This is the small area at the base of the brain consisting of several groups of nerve-cell bodies that receives input from the limbic system. Studies with lab animals have shown that destruction of certain areas of the hypothalamus causes complete elimination of sexual behavior. One of the reasons for the importance of the hypothalamus is that it controls the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that control the other glands of the body. Oxytocin, also known as the hormone of love, is released during sexual intercourse when an orgasm is achieved. Oxytocin is also released in females when they give birth or are breast feeding; it is believed that oxytocin is involved with maintaining close relationships. In males, testosterone appears to be a major contributing factor to sexual motivation. Vasopressin is involved in the male arousal phase, and the increase of vasopressin during erectile response may be directly associated with increased motivation to engage in sexual behavior. The relationship between hormones and female sexual motivation is not as well understood, largely due to the overemphasis on male sexuality in Western research. Estrogen and progesterone typically regulate motivation to engage in sexual behavior for females, with estrogen increasing motivation and progesterone decreasing it. Research suggests that testosterone, oxytocin, and vasopressin are also implicated in female sexual motivation in similar ways as they are in males, but more research is needed to understand these relationships. Sexual Responsiveness Peak: Men and women tend to reach their peak of sexual responsiveness at different ages. For men, sexual responsiveness tends to peak in the late teens and early twenties. Sexual arousal can easily occur in response to physical stimulation or fantasizing. Sexual responsiveness begins a slow decline in the late twenties and into the thirties, 260 although a man may continue to be sexually active. Women often find that they become more sexually responsive throughout their 20s and 30s and may peak in the late 30s or early 40s. Proper use of safe-sex supplies (such as male condoms, female condoms, gloves, or dental dams) reduces contact and risk and can be effective in limiting exposure; however, some disease transmission may occur even with these barriers. Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behavior in the United States; however, in more recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest influences, particularly among American teens (Potard, Courtois, & Rusch, 2008). Mass media in the form of television, magazines, movies, and music continues to shape what is deemed appropriate or normal sexuality, targeting everything from body image to products meant to enhance sex appeal. Cultural Differences: In the West, premarital sex is normative by the late teens, more than a decade before most people enter marriage. In the United States and Canada, and in northern and eastern Europe, cohabitation is also normative; most people have at least one cohabiting 261 partnership before marriage. In southern Europe, cohabiting is still taboo, but premarital sex is tolerated in emerging adulthood. In contrast, both premarital sex and cohabitation remain rare and forbidden throughout Asia. Even dating is discouraged until the late twenties, when it would be a prelude to a serious relationship leading to marriage. In cross-cultural comparisons, about three fourths of emerging adults in the United States and Europe report having had premarital sexual relations by age 20, versus less than one fifth in Japan and South Korea (Hatfield & Rapson, 2006). It is a personal quality that inclines people to feel romantic or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of a given sex or gender. Sexual orientation is independent of gender; for example, a transgender person may identify as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual, polysexual, asexual, or any other kind of sexuality, just like a cisgender person. Sexual Orientation on a Continuum: Sexuality researcher Alfred Kinsey was among the first to conceptualize sexuality as a continuum rather than a strict dichotomy of gay or straight. Research done over several decades has supported this idea that sexual orientation ranges along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the opposite sex/gender to exclusive attraction to the same sex/gender (Carroll, 2016).

Unexpectedly, these behavioral changes were accompanied by an increase in inhibitory synaptic transmission in the cortex, with no apparent effect on excitatory synapses. Deletion of neuroligin-3, in contrast, did not cause such changes, indicating that the R451C-substitution likely represents a gain-offunction mutation. Conclusions: the neuroligin-3 R451C knockin mice may represent the first genetically accurate model of autism not associated with a broader neuropsychiatric syndrome. Brown, New York State Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities Background: the cause of autism may be due to synaptic abnormalities. Neuroligins are present in the postsynaptic membranes of neurons and play a crucial role in the synaptic transmission. Prenatally, En2 is expressed in the mid- and hindbrain regions of the brainstem where monoamine-containing neurons that project to the forebrain develop. Objectives: Define the effects of En2 deletion on development of monoamine neurotransmitters during brain development. Deficits in serotonin levels were paralleled by reductions in protein levels of its rate limiting biosynthetic enzyme, tryptophan hydroxylase, by western blotting. In contrast, levels of norepinephrine were elevated in the brainstem but markedly reduced in hippocampus and cortex, without change in amygdala. Genes that contribute to stress reactivity may, therefore, exacerbate prenatal stress-mediated behavioral changes in the adult offspring. Results: Mecp2Tg1 and Mecp2Tg3 mice display heightened anxiety-like behavior, social behavior abnormalities and altered communication. Transcriptional profiling revealed a majority of significantly altered genes to be down-regulated. Altered size and packing density of neurons in limbic areas including amygdala has also been described in postmortem brains of autism. Objectives: Methods: We are presenting a rat model in which pathfinding of cerebral corticopetal fibers are targeted by lesioning the subplate cells of the developing cerebral cortex. Results: Lesioned animals show increased ratio of excitatory:inhibitory synapses in the cerebral cortex, and increased volume of basolateral and lateral subnuclei of the amygdala showing densely packed small neurons. Interestingly, this abnormality is significantly improved by raising rats as lesioned + control pairs in comparison to raising them as lesioned + lesioned pairs. Conclusions: Present rat model may facilitate identifying mechanisms underlying social interaction deficits, and particularly the neurobiological basis of improvement seen in lesioned animals following raising them paired with normal animals. Wakefield2, (1)University of Pittsburgh, (2)Thoughtful House Center for Children, (3)Washington National Primate Research Center, (4)University of California - Irvine, (5)University of Kentucky Background: Macaques are commonly used in pre-clinical vaccine safety testing, but the combined childhood vaccine regimen, rather than individual vaccines, has not been studied. Childhood vaccines are a possible causal factor in autism, and abnormal behaviors and anomalous amygdala growth are potentially inter-related features of this condition. Objectives: the objective of this study was to compare early infant cognition and behavior with amygdala size and opioid binding in rhesus macaques receiving the recommended childhood vaccines (1994-1999), the majority of which contained the bactericidal preservative ethylmercurithiosalicylic acid (thimerosal). Methods: Macaques were administered the recommended infant vaccines, adjusted for age and thimerosal dose (exposed; N=13), or saline (unexposed; N=3). Primate development, cognition and social behavior were assessed for both vaccinated and unvaccinated infants using standardized tests developed at the Washington National Primate Research Center. Results: Compared with unexposed animals, significant neurodevelopmental deficits were evident for exposed animals in survival reflexes, tests of color discrimination and reversal, and learning sets. Compared with unexposed animals, exposed animals showed attenuation of amygdala growth and differences in the amygdala binding of [11C]diprenorphine. Interaction models identified significant associations between specific aberrant social and non-social behaviors, isotope binding, and vaccine exposure. Conclusions: this animal model, which examines for the first time, behavioral, functional, and neuromorphometric consequences of the childhood vaccine regimen, mimics certain neurological abnormalities of autism. The findings raise important safety issues while providing a potential model for examining aspects of causation and disease pathogenesis in acquired disorders of behavior and development. The need for widespread consultation to encompass regional, cultural and linguistic variation, financial support for training of personnel and validation of the tools in pilot areas have all been highlighted. Both sensitivity and specificity showed high values only if both questionnaire and a systematic phone call were used.

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These theories concentrate more on the origins of norms, rules, and laws than on the origins of specific rulebreaking behaviors. Socially powerful individuals and groups influence and shape public policy by establishing laws. Elite groups define the contents of law and the responses of the criminal justice system to offenders. This process accounts for such norms as those that proscribe homosexual relations, overindulgence in alcoholic beverages, and suicide, usually citing moral or religious reasons. One of them, social threat hypothesis, suggests that social control comes about in reaction to perceived threats; another, left realism, concentrates on politically feasible measures to reduce crime within a conflict perspective. Whereas general theories of deviance attempt to explain all deviant acts, limited theories narrow their scope. Some theories might address only certain types of deviance, particular substantive forms of deviance (such as alcoholism or homicide), or the origins of deviant acts, ignoring the structures that more generally support deviant behavior. This chapter discussed three perspectives: labeling, control, and socialization theories. The labeling perspective emphasizes interactions between deviants and agents of social control and the consequences of those interactions. According to labeling theory, social control efforts sometimes cause deviance instead of restraining it by pushing people toward deviant roles. Closed off from conventional roles by negative or stigmatizing labels, people may become secondary deviants, partly in self-defense. In this sense, labeling theory claims, sanctioning or labeling efforts designed to control deviance amplify it instead. Control theory usually limits its explanations to the phenomena of delinquency and crime. It locates the cause of crime in weak bonds or ties with society, that is, a general lack of integration. Groups that do not become integrated into conventional society (such as members of the lower class) may violate the law because they feel little commitment to the conventional order that establishes it. People who feel close to conventional groups, on the other hand, hesitate to deviate from established rules. Another version of control theory describes crime and other forms of deviance as the results of low self-control. This learning may convey subtle content, for example, that deviance sometimes goes unpunished. Such socialization can also lead people to acquire seriously deviant norms and values that define deviant acts as either necessary or desirable under certain circumstances, such as the company of certain people. Virtually every sociological theory of deviance assumes that socialization influences individuals to become members of groups or the general society. Instead, deviance is related to the social conditions people find themselves in and the social positions (roles) they employ. Deviance is related to some of the most fundamental features of social life: age, sex, social class, and residence. It is the relationships between deviance and social life that occupy our attention here. In April 2006, it was discovered that prison restrictions on Dennis Rader were being eased. He was being permitted to watch television, listen to the radio, and have art materials in his cell. Over a period from 1974 to 1991, and in 2004, Rader killed at least 10 people in and around Wichita, Kansas. He was given 175 years in prison without possibility of parole, or one life sentence for each victim. These and the circumstances under which they occur are among the subjects of this chapter. Substantial consensus affirms the deviant nature of some crimes, such as murder, forcible rape, burglary, and assault.

To match the homologous chromosomes, look carefully at the unnumbered chromosomes. Note their overall size, the position of the centromere, and the pattern of the light and dark bands. Draw a data table in the space below in which to record your observations of the karyotypes shown in Figures 1, 3, 4, and 5. Record the genetic defect, if you know it, associated with each type of chromosomal abnormality present. The karyotype in Figure 3 (which was constructed by the students) has an extra X chromosome 21 which produces trisomy 21-Down syndrome. The karyotype in Figure 4 has an extra X chromosome 23, which is associated with Klinefelter syndrome. The karyotype in Figure 5 has only one X chromosome, which is associated with Turner syndrome. Comparing and Contrasting Of the four karyotypes that you observed, which was normal? The karyotypes in Figures 3 and 4 show evidence of an extra chromosome, while the karyotype in Figure 5 shows that a chromosome is missing. Formulating Hypotheses What chromosomal abnormality appears in the karyotype in Figure 4? Of these three chromosomes, the Y originated from the father, and one of the X chromosomes originated from the mother. Inferring Are chromosomal abnormalities such as the ones shown confined only to certain parts of the body? No; because all chromosomes occur in every cell in the body, these abnormalities would pervade the body. Drawing Conclusions Are genetic defects associated with abnormalities of autosomes or of sex chromosomes? Genetic defects can be associated with abnormalities of either autosomes or sex chromosomes, for example, the extra autosome at 21 in Figure 3, and the missing sex chromosome in Figure 5. Posing Questions Formulate a question that could be answered by observing chromosomes of different species of animals. Going Further Using library materials or the Internet, research one type of deletion syndrome (a syndrome that results from loss of parts of chromosomes). Write a short paragraph describing the chromosomal abnormality involved and the characteristics of the disorder. Well-known deletion syndromes include cri du chat syndrome (5p-deletion) and Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome (4pdeletion). In addition to these, several deletion syndromes result from deletions of very small parts of genes. Students might encounter Alagille syndrome, Angelman syndrome, DiGeorge syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, Miller-Dieker syndrome, and Williams syndrome, among others. Name: Date: Period: Karyotyping Activity Objectives: 1. Identify pairs of homologous chromosomes by length, centromere position, and banding patterns. Half of the genetic material comes from the mother (packaged in the egg) and half of the information comes from the father (delivered in the sperm cell). By performing an analysis of these chromosomes, one can diagnose several genetic disorders. This analysis is called "karyotyping" and is accomplished by matching the homologous chromosomes. Carefully observe the sample karyotype and list three ways that homologous chromosomes can be grouped together: 1. Once again referring to the sample karyotype provided, what is different about the chromosomes in box 23? Amniocentesis is a type of prenatal testing whereby cells are removed from the mother at approximately 16 weeks gestation to determine whether there might be a genetic abnormality in the fetus. Your job is to complete and analyze the karyotype to determine the sex of the child and detect any genetic disorders that might exist.