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Color vision may also deteriorate; keep this in mind if your experiment requires color discrimination when presenting materials or making responses. More time may be needed to perform visual tasks, especially if the lighting conditions are changed during the experiment, such as lowering the lights to view a movie or slide presentation. Older adults also may have difficulty with their hearing; to compensate for this, minimize background noise in the experimental setting. Present information at a slow pace to facilitate comprehension, and permit participants to ask for clarification to make sure the directions are clear. Health status should be obtained as part of demographic questions about older participants. Without information on health status, you will be unable to distinguish behaviors associated with normative development from behaviors associated with chronic disease or disability. Such identification is essential to reduce emphasis on the "deficit" model of aging (Schaie, 1993). In contrast to young adults, older adults may wish to chat and socialize with the experimenter after the testing period. They also may be influenced by time of day, medication intervals, and proximity to meals or rest period. Be patient and sensitive to the needs of each individual, adjusting your research procedures accordingly. As always, the goal is to maximize performance, not maintain a strict experimental regimen. On a practical note, elderly people often have transportation difficulties, so it may be necessary to provide transportation if the research takes place away from their residence. Conduct your study in a location where older adults typically meet such as at social events, religious functions, or retirement communities. This is one of the reasons that research on parents with daytime work schedules is so difficult to do. Researchers may need to travel to the home to make it easier for families to participate; evenings and weekends are obviously better for working parents. Although relatively few fathers participate in many family studies, it is important to give the father the option of agreeing to the research. Much research has been conducted that observes families in unstructured interaction or in a structured setting such as playing a game or discussing a particular issue. Family interactions may focus on a dyad of two family members, a triad involving three family members, or a single individual such as the youngest child or the father. Quantitative data offer detailed descriptions of the interaction, whereas qualitative data are useful to explain the context and pattern of the interaction. Direct observations describe how family members behave, but they cannot explain why a parent or child behaves in a particular way. Quittner and Opipari (1994) used three types of data to assess mother-child interactions with a healthy child and a chronically ill child: (1) home interviews, (2) self-report ratings of maternal behaviors, and (3) diaries. Differential treatment favoring the chronically ill child was only evident in the quantitative and qualitative data derived from the daily diaries. Mothers spent more time with their chronically ill child and viewed these interactions as more positive than interactions with their healthy child. It is rare for a disability to occur in isolation; handicaps are more often multidimensional, including impairments in cognition, vision, hearing, speech, and possibly motor domains. A customized approach to assessment can accommodate their strengths and compensate for other areas of functioning. The need for a quiet, pleasant, distraction-free setting is particularly important for assessing children with special needs. For example, the visually impaired child is especially distracted by a novel environment (Simeonsson, 1986). If you are unable to conduct your research in a setting familiar to the child, plan on multiple sessions, using the first session to build rapport and allow the child to become acclimated to the new surroundings. Then, in a subsequent session you will be more likely to have a friendly, cooperative child who is willing to spend time with you. Test instruments designed for use with normally developing children may not be valid for children with special needs.

An institution was granted the further right to appeal an adverse decision by the review panel first to the President of the Reserve Bank that made the material supervisory determination and ultimately to a member of the Board. The prior guidelines also had safeguards to protect institutions that filed appeals from examiner retaliation. The prior guidelines applied to any ``material supervisory determination,' which included any material matter relating to the examination or inspection process. The only matters excluded from this appeals process were 1 83 2 60 those matters for which an alternative, independent process of appeal exists, such as the imposition of a Prompt Corrective Action directive or a cease and desist order or other formal actions. As noted in the prior guidelines, institutions were encouraged to express questions or concerns about supervisory determinations during the course of an inspection or examination, consistent with the longstanding Federal Reserve practice of resolving problems informally during the course of the inspection or examination process. It specified the responsibilities of the Ombudsman, which include serving as a point of contact for complaints regarding any Federal Reserve action, referring complaints to the appropriate person, and investigating and resolving complaints of retaliation. Proposed Appeals Process and Ombudsman Policy the Board proposed to amend its appeals process for material supervisory determinations in several ways. Specifically, the Board proposed to reduce the levels of appeal from three to two and to enhance independent review of the matter by providing that Federal Reserve and Board staff not affiliated with the affected Reserve Bank review the matter at both appeal levels. The Board proposed establishing specific standards of review to be applied in the two levels of appeal. The panel that reviews the initial appeal would be required to approach the determination being appealed as if no determination had previously been made by Federal Reserve staff. The initial review panel would consider a record that includes any relevant materials submitted by the appealing institution and Federal Reserve staff, and have the discretion to augment the record in appropriate circumstances. The final review panel would consider whether the decision of the initial review panel is reasonable and supported by a preponderance of the evidence in the record, but would not seek to augment the record with new information. To maximize transparency, the decision of the final review panel would be made public. The final appeals process will apply to all material supervisory determination appeals initiated after the effective date. Appeals Process Since 1995, the Board has had the opportunity to observe the operation of the appeals guidelines over a significant period of time and receive feedback from supervised institutions. Based on that experience and feedback, the Board proposed to amend its appellate process in several ways. In particular, the proposal was designed to improve and expedite the appeals process, particularly for institutions that are in troubled condition. In addition, the proposal was intended to lay out a more explicit process that will allow more uniform application than has occurred under the existing guidelines. Definition of Material Supervisory Determination the proposal included a detailed description of what constitutes a material supervisory determination in order to promote a better understanding of whether a supervisory determination is material. Commenters suggested that the proposal be clarified with respect to what qualifies as a material supervisory determination. The Board recognizes, however, that some examination findings are issued jointly with other agencies. In these circumstances, the Board will consider an appeal to the extent the material supervisory determination was issued by the Board, unless an independent right of appeal has been established, such as with respect to Shared National Credit program determinations. In addition, the Board is clarifying that it only issues material supervisory determinations in writing. However, experience has shown that objectivity can be ensured with a more streamlined and efficient process. With these goals in mind, the proposal reduced the levels of appeal from three to two and enhanced independent review of the matter by providing that Federal Reserve and revisions would formalize many of the current practices of the Ombudsman, including receiving supervisory-related complaints and material supervisory determination appeals. In addition, the proposed revisions would allow the Ombudsman to attend meetings or deliberations relating to an appeal as an observer, if requested by the institution or Federal Reserve staff. Additional details of the proposed process and policy are described further below in connection with the comments that relate to them. Overview of Changes to the Proposal General Summary of Comments the Board received five comment letters regarding the proposal from industry trade associations and a law firm.

Telephone interviews are less expensive than face-to-face interviews, and new computerized telephone survey techniques lower the cost of telephone surveys even further by reducing labor and data analysis c sts. Conducting an in erview is as much art as it is science, particularly when open-ended responses are used. With sufficient training and practice, these suggestions are easy fo an interviewer to master. Ask general questi ns first, followed by specific probes to clarify a particular reply. Follow-u questions help the interviewer get more in-depth information than is init ally volunteered. Do not talk rapidl or mumble, do not provide personal opinions, and do not answer for or rgue with the respondent. Do not overdress for the occasion; rapp rt is easier to establish if your wardrobe is similar to that of the participants. One population of interest to a pollster might be all retired citizens in the United States. With enough time and money, a pollster could conceivably contact everyone in the population who is retired. Fortunately, the pollster can avoid this massive undertaking by selecting a sample from the population of interest. With proper sampling, the pollster can use information obtained from the sample to determine key characteristics of the population as a whole. There are two basic types of sampling techniques: nonprobability sampling and probability sampling. Individuals in the population have unequal chances of being selected for the survey. In contrast, with probability sampling each member of the population has a specifiable probability of being chosen. Individuals in the population have an equal chance of being sampled for the survey. Probability sampling is necessary to accurately generalize results from a sample to the population from which that sample was drawn. Sampling Nonprobability Sampling Nonprobability sampling techniques are quite arbitrary. A population may be defined but little effort expended to ensure that the sample accurately represents the population. Haphazard, or "convenience," sampling could be called a "take-them-where-you-findthem" method of obtaining respondents. For example, a television reporter might poll people who happen to walk past a particular street corner at a particular time of day and are willing to say a few words to the camera. The population of interest might be "people who live in this city," but the results of this poll could not be generalized to this population. It would not be possible to specify the probability of a city resident being chosen as a participant in this poll. The probability would be high for some people (those who live or work near the street corner) and low for others. Thus, any generalization of the results to the entire city probably would be inaccurate. A researcher who uses this technique chooses a sample that reflects the numerical composition of various subgroups in the population. For instance, suppose your city has the following composition: 60% White, 20% African American, 10% Latino, 8% Asian American, and 2% Native American. A quota sampling technique that uses nationality and ethnic subgroups would produce a sample that numerically reflects these percentages. Similarly, subgroups might be based on age, gender, socioeconomic class, college majors, and so on.

These issues and problems led to the initiation of this study and are the focus of this report. The many children who succeed in reading are in classrooms that display a wide range of possible approaches to instruction. In making recommendations about instruction, one of the challenges facing the committee is the difficult-to-deal-with fact that many children will learn to read in almost any classroom, with almost any instructional emphasis. Nonetheless, some children, in particular children from poor, minority, or non-English-speaking families and children who have innate predispositions for reading difficulties, need the support of high-quality preschool and school environments and of excellent primary instruction to be sure of reading success. We attempt to identify the characteristics of the preschool and school environments that will be effective for such children. The Challenge of a Technological Society Although children have been taught to read for many centuries, only in this centuryand until recently only in some countrieshas there been widespread expectation that literacy skills should be universal. Furthermore, the definition of full-fledged literacy has shifted over the last century with increased distribution of technology, with the development of communication across distances, and with the proliferation of large-scale economic enterprises (Kaestle, 1991; Miller, 1988; Weber, 1993). To be employable in the modern economy, high school graduates need to be more than merely literate. They must be able to read challenging material, to perform sophisticated calculations, and to solve problems independently (Murnane and Levy, 1993). The demands are far greater than those placed on the vast majority of schooled literate individuals a quarter-century ago. Data from the National Education Longitudinal Study and High School and Beyond, the two most comprehensive longitudinal assessments of U. Department of Labor, Office of Employment and Unemployment Statistics, quoted in National Center for Education Statistics, 1995:401). By contrast, the unemployment rate for high school graduates with no college was twice as high, 5. Department of Labor, 1995; quoted in National Center for Education Statistics, 1995:401). By contrast, the mean incomes of young male high school graduates dropped by about one-third, and those of college graduates by 20 percent in the 1970s and then stabilized. Among the six major demographic groups (males and females who are black, white, or Hispanic), the lowest average income among college graduates was higher than the highest group of high school graduates. A person who is not at least a modestly skilled reader by the end of third grade is quite unlikely to graduate from high school. Only a generation ago, this did not matter so much, because the long-term economic effects of not becoming a good reader and not graduating from high school were less severe. Perhaps not surprisingly, when teachers are asked about the most important goal for education, over half of elementary school teachers chose "building basic literacy skills" (National Center for Education Statistics Schools and Staffing Survey, 1990-1991, quoted in National Center for Education Statistics, 1995:31). The Special Challenge of Learning to Read English Learning to read poses real challenges, even to children who will eventually become good readers. Furthermore, although every writ- ing system has its own complexities, English presents a relatively large challenge, even among alphabetic languages. Learning the principles of a syllabic system, like the Japanese katakana, is quite straightforward, since the units representedsyllablesare pronounceable and psychologically real, even to young children. Spoken English has approximately 5,000 different possible syllables; instead of representing each one with a symbol in the writing system, written English relies on an alphabetic system that represents the parts that make up a spoken syllable, rather than representing the syllable as a unit. An alphabetic system poses a challenge to the beginning reader, because the units represented graphically by letters of the alphabet are referentially meaningless and phonologically abstract. For example, there are three sounds represented by three letters in the word "but," but each sound alone does not refer to anything, and only the middle sound can really be pronounced in isolation; when we try to say the first or last consonant of the word all by itself, we have to add a vowel to make it a pronounceable entity (see Box 1-1). The study of the structure and form of words in language or a language, including inflection, derivation, and the formation of compounds. The study of speech structure in language (or a particular language) that includes both the patterns of basic speech units (phonemes) and the tacit rules of pronunciation. In English, a syllable can consist of a vowel sound alone or a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds preceding and following.