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Deputy Director, UCSF School of Medicine

Water used for irrigation can contain salt and brings salts deeper in the soil profile to the rooting zone (see Section 4. The re-routing of surface waters into dams and reservoirs alters regional hydrology, with cascading consequences for downstream ecosystems. It also increases decomposition rates, which can increase the release of mineral nutrients at times when there may not be a crop present to utilize them and promotes carbon dioxide release from soil organic matter oxidation. As populations grow, fallow periods usually shorten or can cease, increasing periods of bare soil, which leaves soils vulnerable to all the consequences of bare soil. In developed countries, fields and even large regions are often planted with the same crop (monoculture), which can increase pest and disease pressure through loss of natural control processes, especially in fruit and vegetable crops. Monocultures also require heavy pesticide treatment, which can degrade soils and water quality. Fertilizers and manures improve yields; however, high rates of applications can lead to a host of environmental consequences including pollution of ground and surface water (Carpenter et al. Furthermore, synthetic fertilizers contain no organic component, which leaves soils vulnerable to erosion and reduces water- and nutrientholding capacity. The use of organic fertilizers such as farmyard manure is always superior, but the materials are generally not available in adequate quantities. Chemical pest and weed control has been linked to , for example, water pollution, declines in bird and bee populations and other negative effects on ecosystem services, including human health (Hernandez et al. A growing dependence on chemical pest control has created a "pesticide treadmill," where pests develop resistance to one pesticide and so new ones have to be developed if possible (see Section 4. At the farm-scale, practices such as tillage, irrigation, crop rotations, fertilizer use and chemical pest and weed control can all cause land degradation. The same factors also have consequences at the landscape, regional and global scales, although the connections are less obvious. Over larger areas, the percent of land cleared for agriculture, the degree of fragmentation, the heterogeneity of crops and land-use systems, mainly affect biodiversity beyond the local habitat scale (see Section 4. The colour composite shows tree cover in green, forest loss in red, forest gain in blue, and forest loss and gain in magenta. All map layers resampled for display purposes from the 30-m observation scale to a 0. Intensive forestry in subtropical forests has resulted in the highest rates of forest change globally (Malhi et al. Boreal forest losses are second to those in the tropics, largely due to fire and forest utilization. They have a relatively short history of large-scale human settlement: localized degradation started around 16th century, but more recently there has been large-scale logging, initially for tar production and later for shipbuilding, charcoal and so on (Wallenius et al. Currently, logging for lumber and biomass harvesting for power generation are the most important uses which, together, are now very extensive. For example, in Fennoscandia, more than 90% of the productive forests are under intensive forest management, often at the expense of other ecosystem services (Bouget et al. Mosaics comprised of trees outside forests, remnant forest patches, and young regenerating forests constitute a modest proportion of the tropical forest estate, and lack most of the processes of continuous forests. Forest expansion continues to occur in most industrialized countries, on lands abandoned by farming and animal husbandry and areas that continue to mature on land that was deforested in the past century but have not been converted to a different land use since then (Keenan et al. Some middle income tropical countries are also transitioning to the forest gain stage. Multiple-use forests where both production and conservation are permitted, account for 26% of the global forest and 17% of the tropical forest area, having increased by 0. There is no deforestation if clear felling is on an area that, in time, will regenerate to forest. Degradation, on the other hand, does not involve a reduction of the forest area, but rather a reduction in its condition within an existing forest (Cannon, 2018; Lanly, 2003; van Lierop et al.

Irreversible effects occur when large volumes of toxic aqueous slurries and sediments are released into aquatic systems after tailings dam bursts. Immediately after these events, water flow, sediment deposition and toxic effects degrade riparian and aquatic ecosystems locally and downstream of the mine site (Fernandes et al. In addition to direct impacts of solid sediments to ecosystem structure, hazardous substances and process chemicals in waste sediments and mine waters have long-term effects on watersheds. Waste type Soils and biomass Mine Phase Characteristics Suppressed vegetation and organic soils (horizon A and B) containing nutrients, seed banks, mycorrhiza and pedo-fauna. Risks to ecosystems If stored improperly, organic materials may emit greenhouse gases during decomposition. Rescued germplasm and soils used for reclamation of pits, quarries and waste disposal facilities. Exploration and extraction Overburden and spoiling rocks Waste dumps Large footprint of sterile dumps. Processing, concentration and recovery Tailings Gangue separated from the valuable minerals and process chemicals. Long term remobilization and transformations of accumulated hazardous substances often create toxicity legacies that may affect both human populations and wildlife for extended periods of time, up to hundreds of kilometres downstream of pollution sources (Guimaraes et al. Prevention and remediation are particularly problematic in the case of transboundary contamination. Although there are no comprehensive reviews of the subject, there have been cases in many parts of the world that have led to international litigation. This growth would cause the loss of almost 65 Tg of crop production, which may require up to 350,000 Km2 of new cropland to replace the lost yield. The share of urban land take in cropland areas is highest in Europe, the MiddleEast, Northern Africa, and China, while it is relatively low in Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 4. Urban agriculture and gardening is an increasing trend, but some of the sites that are being planted were previously used for industrial activities and the soil may contain residual chemicals at a level that could pose health risks. Lead, cadmium, arsenic, zinc, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are contaminants commonly found in any urban environment (see Section 4. Particularly in richer countries, urban and suburban development has led to high nutrient loads in many streams and rivers due to run off from over-fertilization of lawns and golf-courses, faulty septic systems and cracked sewer pipes. Some regions have high probability of urban expansion in specific locations (1 and 2), and others have extensive, high probabilities of urban growth (3). Direct causes of biodiversity loss include habitat loss, homogenization, fragmentation, heat island effects, environmental pollution and exotic species introductions and invasions (Fan et al. Changes in landscape configuration as a result of urbanization affects the ranges of species and can enhance local extinction through loss of connectivity (Mitchell et al. Some aspects of urbanization cause the loss of species diversity by replacement of the natural biota, while others can promote biodiversity, albeit by the addition of non-native species (McKinney, 2002, 2006) and common weeds. About 65% of studies of plants, 30% of studies of invertebrates and about 12% of non-avian vertebrates found increases in species richness with moderate urbanization (Hope et al. Urban-rural gradient studies show that, for many taxa, the number of non-native species increases toward centres of urbanization, while the number of native species decreases (see Sections 4. Interactions between urbanization and ecosystem service provision are multifaceted. Air quality, local and global climate, flood protection, erosion, pollination and recreation can all be changed (Tardieu et al. At the regional and global scales, ecological processes are affected mostly by atmospheric dispersal of pollutants, but also through water and human transportation. For example, in the urban region in the Yangtze River Delta, net primary production decreased significantly due to urbanization processes from 1999 to 2010. Globally, between 20 and 40 MgC/ha of primary production are forecast to be lost (Figure 4. Urbanization has become one of the main drivers of the threat to global biodiversity. Sustainable urban development, including managing and designing urban biodiversity, is therefore of crucial importance to the future of global biodiversity. Good urban planning and the pattern of urban development can reduce the loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity. To promote urban biodiversity and sustainable urban design, the Urban Biodiversity and Design scientific network was founded (Fan et al.

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Quantitative Purkinje cell loss indicated a significant difference between ischemic groups and sham controls. A subset of Purkinje cells simultaneously displayed three biomarkers termed "apoptotic trilogy". Apoptotic bodies limited to the cytosolic compartment were found in a subset of the Purkinje cells. In conclusion, histological methods, while requiring a higher morphological standard, remain indispensable in defining cerebellar Purkinje cell death. A subset of cerebellar Purkinje cells does experience caspase-dependent apoptosis following ischemia. However, understanding of ejaculatory function will be improved with use of transgenic mouse models and molecular tools. However, the stimulation parameters required and the characteristics of the bursting patterns slightly differed from those used and observed in male rats. We recently demonstrated that sensory stimulation was unable to trigger ejaculatory reflexes in male rats with contusion injury, suggesting a similar severe ejaculatory dysfunction as in human patients. Male Sprague Dawley rats received a contusion injury at spinal levels T6-7 or a sham surgery. Future studies will confirm if Vglut2 along with Vglut1 is expressed in dorsal penile nerve afferents. We have previously shown that chronic contusion injury impairs ejaculation in male rats 4-6 weeks after injury. Male Sprague Dawley rats received either a contusion or sham surgery at spinal levels T6-7. Animals were compared at 7 and 21 dpi for nociceptive fiber density at the first time point when mechanical allodynia is reliably detectable and when it is fully established. Injured mice developed mechanical hypersensitivity to smalldiameter von Frey filaments (0. Importantly, this pathological pain is particularly refractory to treatment, urgently calling for the identification of mechanistic targets that both robustly regulate pathological pain and avoid the devastating effects of opioid based interventions. Spinal Cord Injury and Plasticity Support: Craig H Neilsen Foundation Discovery Theme Initiative - the Ohio State University Title: Promoting structural and functional reorganization of neuronal circuits after spinal cord injury Authors: *A. We recently discovered that administration of a potent gabapentinoid commonly used to treat various neurological disorders, promotes robust regeneration of ascending sensory axons in adult mice by blocking Alpha2delta2, a neuronal receptor and intrinsic molecular brake of axon growth and regeneration. Free, active arachidonic acid invokes direct pro-inflammatory functions or, through synthesis pathways, forms various eicosanoids with pro-inflammatory properties. In rats, electrical stimulation or capsaicin treatment a day after a contusion injury increases tissue loss (secondary injury) and impairs long-term recovery. Recent evidence suggests that pain input enhances tissue loss due to a breakdown of the blood-spinal cord barrier and an expansion of hemorrhage. Currently, little is known regarding the circumstances under which this effect emerges. The present study explored this issue by assessing how the effect of stimulation varies as a function of intensity, duration, and time since injury. In Experiment 1, noxious stimulation (6 min of intermittent shock at an intensity of 1. We found that stimulation 1-4 days after injury increased the infiltration of hemoglobin into the injury site. These shock conditions also produced an acute disruption in locomotor performance. The results suggest that even moderate pain input can affect the development of secondary injury. Pro-inflammatory (also called M1) macrophages predominate and typically cause neurotoxicity.

As these metabolites regulate innate immune development, we determined how altered metabolite availability impacts the E18. Taken together, our results demonstrate stress reprogramming of the neuroimmune compartment via maternal gut microbiota-derived metabolites. While maternal insults during pregnancy directly impact fetal development, the mechanisms by which lifelong stress experience can alter germ cell programming and affect offspring neurodevelopment are unknown. Together, these studies bring to attention the importance of female lifetime and preconception experiences on germline, placental, and offspring brain development, and highlight its potential contribution to the stress-induced racial disparity in infant health outcomes. Moreover, behavioral and physiological responses to stressful situations are impacted when the bacterial status of the gut is manipulated, either by infection, treatment with probiotics, or genetic modification. Stress and the Brain Title: A functional role of somatic retrotransposition in schizophrenia-associated sensory motor gating deficits Authors: *J. While it has been hypothesized that aberrant somatic L1 activity could mediate environmental factors that contribute to neurological disorders, evidence of L1 activation and the functional consequences of L1 mediated somatic mosaicism has remained elusive. Herein, we investigate the functional role of inflammation-driven somatic L1 retrotransposition in contributing to neurological disorders. Therefore, somatic retrotransposition specifically mediates attentional abnormalities associated with schizophrenia and autism. These results suggest that L1 genomic variation mediates an important environmental risk factor for aberrant neural development and that properly tuned levels of somatic mosaicism are essential for healthy cognitive function. The origins of pathology are thought to be rooted in atypical development of circuits regulating emotional responding, including the amygdala. Previous work has established that tone-associated freezing develops as early 15 days of age and stays relatively stable across early development. In rats, social isolation during adolescence induces changes reflective of neuropsychological disorders, such as depression. However, the molecular mechanism(s) underlying these outcomes have not yet been elucidated. At post-natal day 21, 20 male and 20 female Sprague-Dawley rats were separated into either group (N=3 animals/cage) or isolation housing. Differences in receptor subunit expression between the control (group housed) and stressed (isolated) animals were observed, including sex-specific and region-specific variation. The transactivation pathway is of particular interest because of its potential to harness neuroprotective potential and to buffer against various neuronal insults. This data will form the basis for subsequent work to improve our understanding of the molecular neurodevelopmental responses to chronic early-life stress. Thirst and Water Balance Support: Hellman Fellowship Title: Circuitry for water seeking motivation in Drosophila Authors: D. How thirst circuits in the brain coordinate the appropriate goal-directed behavior, and how it can do so in the presence of opposing behavioral states such as hunger, is not well understood. We show that a persistent state of thirst is evoked by the precise activation and inactivation of overlapping central brain neuronal circuit elements in Drosophila. In a neuronal activation screen, we identified a subset of glutamatergic neurons that evoke robust thirst-related behaviors, including water seeking and intake; we named these neurons Durstig, the German for thirsty. These central brain neurons function downstream of sensory input and internal osmotic sensors to drive seeking to either open or inaccessible water. Importantly, activation of Durstig neurons overrides food seeking in water replete but hungry flies. Thus, neural circuit elements that regulate hunger and thirst are tightly integrated. These studies provide an entry point for mapping the fundamental homeostatic thirst neurons and the hierarchical wiring of neural circuits that encode opposing motivational states. However, the key circuit elements and precise circuit organization remain unclear. These responses are induced by wet solids or aqueous liquids as well, but not by dry solids or non-aqueous liquids. Taken together, our study provides a circuit mechanism to explain how water intake signals from the periphery are transmitted to the thirst centers and quench thirst. Recent studies indicate that central amygdala (CeA) play a role in ingestive behavior and the mechanism is still poorly understood. The activity of this pathway increased during drinking period recorded by fiber photometry in mice. Furthermore, photo-stimulation of this projection effectively induced a licking behavior and promoted water consumption in mice.