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The surrounding population was exposed mainly to the fresh radioactive fallout from four surface explosions conducted in 1949, 1951, 1953, and 1956, and the radioactive contamination outside the test zone currently is assessed to be low. A total of 40 three-generation families around the test site (characterized by the highest effective dose >1 Sv) along with 28 three-generation nonirradiated families from a geographically similar noncontaminated rural area of Kazakhstan were included in the study (Dubrova and others 2002a). All parents and offspring were profiled with the eight hypervariable minisatellite probes previously used in the Belarus and Ukraine studies. The mutation rates in the P0 and F1 generations were established from the observed frequencies, respectively, in the F1 and F2 generations (controls and exposed progeny). The findings were (1) in the controls, the spontaneous mutation rates in the P0 and F1 generations were similar; Copyright National Academy of Sciences. The authors have interpreted these findings as follows: (1) all P0 parents born between 1926 and 1948 would have been directly exposed to relatively high levels of radiation from the nuclear tests, and this would explain the 1. The cell lines were from 64 children from the 50 most heavily exposed families (combined gonadal equivalent dose of 1. Twenty-two of these were in the controls (of 1098 alleles tested; 2%), and six were in children from irradiated parents (among 390 alleles; 1. Thus, there was no significant difference in mutation frequencies between the control and the exposed groups. The discrepancy between the results of Kodaira and colleagues, on the one hand, and those of Dubrova and colleagues (1996, 1998b, 2000a, 2000b) in the Belarus and other cohorts discussed earlier appears real. To what extent this might be due to differences in type and duration of radiation exposure remains unclear. For instance, the A-bomb survivors were externally exposed to considerable acute doses of radiation, whereas in the Belarus, Ukraine, and Semipalatinsk studies the exposures were chronic (both in- ternal and external). Secondly, in the case of A-bomb survivors, most of their children were born more than 10 years after the single, acute parental exposure; in Belarus and Ukraine, however, the affected areas have been irradiated constantly since the Chernobyl accident. Finally, the Japanese data are derived from families in which most of the children were born to parents of whom only one had sustained radiation; in the work of Dubrova and colleagues, the data pertain to children for whom both parents had been exposed to chronic irradiation. Livshits and colleagues (2001) found that the children of Chernobyl cleanup workers (liquidators) did not show an elevated rate of minisatellite mutations compared to a Ukrainian control group. This would be consistent with an effect on cells undergoing spermatogenesis, but not on spermatogonial stem cells. More recently, Kiuru and colleagues (2003) compared the frequencies of minisatellite mutations among children of 147 Estonian Chernobyl cleanup workers. A total of 94 mutations (42 in the pre-Chernobyl group and 52 in the post-Chernobyl group) were found at the eight tested loci. The available data do not permit an assessment of the extent to which differences in paternal age might have contributed to this difference. When the cleanup workers were subdivided according to their radiation doses, the mutation rate in children born to fathers with recorded doses of 200 mSv, showed a nonsignificant increase relative to their siblings; at lower doses there was no difference. These mutants were not validated and had no obvious molecular basis (Jeffreys and Dubrova 2001). There were no significant differences in mutation frequencies in the pretherapy and posttherapy samples (11 and 16 months, respectively, in the two individuals). Nine patients treated with either vinblastine or adriamycin and bleomycin did not show any increases in mutation frequency. Vinblastine binds to tubulin and, in mice, results in aneuploidy but not chromosome breakage or mutations. Bleomycin, a radiomimetic agent, selectively targets mouse oocytes, but no mutation induction in male germ cells has been observed. These men received 15 fractions of acute X-irradiation, with a total testicular dose (from scattered radiation) ranging between 0. The comparable estimate for sex chromosomal aneuploidy and electrophoretic mutations considered together was 2. The former was estimated by summing the five individual estimates of spontaneous rates (which yielded 0. In these estimates, the limits reflect biological uncertainties about the parameters, but do not take into account the additional error inherent in the estimation process itself, which must be relatively large (Neel and others 1990).

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Soil acidification and salinization were also highlighted, although their occurrence was more localized and area-specific. Erosion assessment A separate spatial study was conducted on the extent of gully erosion in South Africa (Le Roux et al. The study also assessed national erosion potential in terms of soils, climate and topography (Le Roux, 2012). The assessment of water erosion susceptibility indicated that around 20 percent (26 million ha) of the country is classified as having a moderate to severe erosion risk (mainly based on sheet-rill erosion). The affected areas are concentrated in the south-eastern and north-eastern interior, mainly in the Eastern Cape, KwaZuluNatal, Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces. All of these areas are characterized by a combination of high (often intense) rainfall, duplex soils derived from sodium-rich parent materials, and steep slopes (see Figure 9. These natural conditions are often exacerbated by poor land use practices, such as incorrect cultivation methods, overgrazing by livestock and high population density. The erosion process starts when the vegetation cover is disturbed or removed, allowing the rainfall to impact directly on bare soil. Combating soil erosion by water remains a huge challenge in many affected areas of the country due to a combination of lack of resources, poor knowledge or awareness and poor infrastructure, mainly roads. The challenges of treating erosion and the more difficult task of rehabilitating large areas of land, combined with the off-site effects such as silting up of dams, together pose one of the most serious soil management challenges in South Africa today. Soil nutrient depletion, acidity and organic matter Although soil erosion by water was confirmed as the main soil degradation type in the country, there are areas in South Africa affected by wind erosion, nutrient depletion, loss of organic matter, soil acidity, salinity and sodicity as well as pollution from mining and industrial sources. Desktop assessments of soil nutrient depletion, acidity and organic matter in South Africa were conducted during 2007-2008 (Beukes, Stronkhorst and Jezile, 2008a,b; Du Preez et al. These studies included extensive reviews of international and national documentation, interviews with experts from various national and provincial institutions, and processing of data available from a number of national databases and soil analytical laboratories. Detailed results have been reported for each of the nine provinces in South Africa, but only a national summary is presented here (Beukes, Stronkhorst and Jezile, 2008a,b) with a focus on the agricultural sector. The impact of the dualistic nature of South African agriculture on soil nutrient depletion was clearly evident, with soils from the resource-poor/small-scale/upcoming farmers generally being acidified, severely P depleted, and N, K, Ca and Mg deficient (Manson, 1996; Beukes, Stronkhorst and Jezile, 2008b). Within this group, two sub-groups can be distinguished, as these farmers produce crops at two levels. The first sub-group is the home garden where relatively high fertility levels are evident. This is mainly because these gardens are located next to the homesteads and are therefore easier to manage. The second sub-group consists of crop fields which are larger and further from the homesteads. As a result, these fields are less secure in terms of livestock access and there are transport constraints. In addition, most smallholder farmers are risk-averse due to their limited resources. These fields are therefore generally severely nutrient depleted, especially in terms of P and K deficiencies, while N, Mg and Ca deficiencies are also often noted. By contrast, commercial agriculture operates on a much larger scale and higher levels of management and inputs are maintained on these farms to ensure higher productivity. This is especially the case in the sugar, vine and fruit farming sectors due to higher costs for crop establishment and maintenance. Soils in the commercial sector generally exhibit P deficiency as the main nutrient concern, with K deficiency also occurring in many areas. Commercial pastures may have fewer deficiencies: for example in KwaZulu-Natal, P deficiency is almost negligible and K, Ca and Mg appear well supplied (Beukes, Stronkhorst and Jezile, 2008b). Naturally occurring acid soils are generally associated with high rainfall areas and certain geological materials which, in South Africa, are located in the western and southern Cape coastal belts, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Limpopo Province (see Figure 9. The extent of anthropogenic soil acidity in the country is not easy to estimate, but general trends can be observed. In the winter rainfall region, approximately 560 000 ha is under cultivation, and on 60 percent of this area soils indicate problems with acidity.

Self-report assessments should include psychometrically-validated questions and measures. When possible, measuring other dimensions of sleep health, such as timing, regularity, and quality, could lead to a more nuanced understanding of sleep-health relationships. In addition, more laboratory studies are needed that systematically vary sleep opportunity in discrete steps between doses of 6 hours and 8 hours, using objective assessments of sleep physiology and cognitive performance. Other laboratory studies could systematically mimic the more typical lifestyle of cycling through doses of shorter (restricted) and longer (recovery) sleep duration. Investigate downstream mechanisms linking habitual sleep duration to health and functioning. Investigating mechanisms requires studies from epidemiologic and experimental perspectives, as well as research study designs that bridge these two approaches. For example, additional studies are needed that bring real-world short and long sleepers into the laboratory for in-depth assessment of the metabolic, cardiovascular, and neurocognitive correlates of habitual sleep duration. Intervention studies could also help to clarify whether modifying sleep improves health outcomes. Such studies could help to address whether sleep plays a causal role in health and functioning, or whether it serves as a marker of other processes. Better delineate the upstream physiologic, behavioral, social, and environmental factors that may play a role in sleep duration and health outcomes. We need to better understand the genetic factors related to individual sleep need, resilience to sleep loss, and perception of sleep. In addition, the roles of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, neighborhood, and other factors that may contribute to sleep and other adverse outcomes require further study. Better understanding the genetic, physiologic, and environmental factors that influence sleep duration can inform intervention strategies. Since we do not yet know whether habitual sleep duration can be modified in the real world, a systematic approach, moving from treatment development studies, to efficacy studies, to large-scale pragmatic trials, is warranted. Intervention studies can determine whether increasing habitual sleep duration among insufficient sleepers or extending sleep in normal sleepers results in improved outcomes, and how such changes can best be achieved. Such studies would not only assess the effects of sleep extension on human physiology, but also address the inconsistent epidemiological data showing long sleep is associated with poor Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, Vol. Intervention studies may also help to understand how different health and functioning outcomes are related to each other. In short, how can we get people who cannot find time for sleep, or do not prioritize sleep, to increase their sleep duration How do we convince a population where undiagnosed sleep disorders are more common than diagnosed sleep disorders to get proper screening, diagnosis, and treatment Inexpensive, reliable, feasible biomarkers could advance the goals of clinical care, public health, and public policy. For instance, biomarkers would allow clinicians to provide more accurate sleep schedule recommendations to patients, and policy makers to facilitate policy decisions. Biomarkers would also catalyze research assessing the long term consequences of sleep curtailment, or the health ramifications of "social jetlag. Multiple rounds of evidence review, discussion, and voting were conducted to arrive at the final recommendation. Stress response genes protect against lethal effects of sleep deprivation in Drosophila. The cumulative cost of additional wakefulness: dose-response effects on neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation. Patterns of performance degradation and restoration during sleep restriction and subsequent recovery: a sleep dose-response study. A meta-analysis of the impact of short-term sleep deprivation on cognitive variables. Sleep loss and performance in residents and nonphysicians: a meta-analytic examination. Sleep and the price of plasticity: from synaptic and cellular homeostasis to memory consolidation and integration. Sleep deprivation and stressors: evidence for elevated negative affect in response to mild stressors when sleep deprived.

Prohibited Weapons and Ammunition the Firearms Regulations make it illegal to acquire, hold, or possess firearms normally used as (a) weapons of war, (b) fully automatic weapons, and (c) firearms disguised as other objects. Semiautomatic weapons that can be easily converted to produce fully automatic fire are banned. Would-be owners of a semiautomatic weapon must obtain police approval for the weapon. These include stun guns, pepper spray, and other products for self defense that have an equivalent effect; as well as flick knives, batanga knives, stilettos, brass knuckles, billy clubs, karate sticks, throwing stars, blow guns for firing arrows or other objects, slingshots, and other similar, especially dangerous items. Types of weapons designed purely for military or police purposes fall under category (a). This provision is not applicable to weapons specific to or belonging to the police or the military. The personal qualifications are set forth under section 10 of the Firearms Regulations, which makes reference to the Firearms Act requirements of sobriety, reliability, suitability, age, and reasonable grounds. The Law Library of Congress 175 Firearms-Control Legislation and Policy revolvers with central fire ignition (except when used for practice and competition shooting). Sale and Manufacture of Firearms Anyone who wants to trade in firearms, firearm parts, or ammunition must have a license (bevilling) from the competent ministry. The license application is to be submitted to the police commissioner of the district where the applicant intends to conduct business. The Law Library of Congress 176 Firearms-Control Legislation and Policy another dealer may only take place when that dealer can prove that he or she has a license to trade in those goods to which the order applies. Upon delivery, the supplier is required to give notification of that fact to the police commissioner of the district where the supplier has his or her place of business. The notification will also state the date of delivery, the name and address of the consignee, and the number, type or nature, trademark, model designation, caliber, mechanism type, and number of weapons or weapons parts or the quantity and type of ammunition supplied. The record must state the date of receipt or delivery; the name of the seller or buyer; and the quantity, type or nature, trademark, model designation, caliber, mechanism type, and the numbering of weapons or weapons parts received or delivered. Upon importation, a copy of the vendor invoice and shipping slip must be attached. Within ten days after the imported items arrived in stock, the dealer is required to send the list to the police commissioner of the district where the dealer has his place of business. The licensing provisions in the Act are also applicable to weapons manufactured in this manner. Import and Export Anyone who imports or exports firearms, firearm parts, or ammunition must have a permit from the competent ministry. For importation of the goods for private use only, a permit can still be given if it is one that meets the terms of the Act on purchase and acquisition of firearms and ammunition, 77 but the Act stipulates that the provisions on firearms licenses also apply to goods so imported. Offenses and Penalties Anyone who willfully or negligently violates the provisions in, or made pursuant to , the Firearms Act will be subject to a fine or to a term of imprisonment of up to three months, unless the offense entails a stiffer penal provision. The Law Library of Congress 178 Firearms-Control Legislation and Policy whether the offense is serious, particular emphasis is placed on the kind and number of weapons involved, or whether the action is for other reasons of a particularly dangerous or socially damaging nature. Under one such provision, a fine or imprisonment for up to two years will be available to be imposed on those who intentionally or through gross negligence repeatedly or seriously contravene provisions on the illegal import, transfer, acquisition, or possession of weapons under the Firearms Act. Miscellaneous Provisions the Firearms Act stipulates that firearms and ammunition must be kept securely locked down, and gun safes have become mandatory. All the information in such a computerized register may be exempt from public disclosure. Statistical Information A news report that cited police figures current in 2011 indicated that there were 1,229,436 registered guns in Norway, owned by 484,298 persons (about 9. Detailed rules for storage, according to this provision, are stipulated by the King. These rules may also apply to firearms, firearm parts, and ammunition referred to in section 5 of the Act, which covers such instruments as signal pistols, slaughter equipment, and rescue and harpoon guns. The provision also sets forth the types of locks and alarms required for such storage. Among other findings, it pointed out that the victims were known to the assailant in more than 80% of the killings. Mentally ill people and those who have been treated for substance abuse are not allowed to possess firearms.