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D. Ugo, M.B.A., M.B.B.S., M.H.S.

Associate Professor, Louisiana State University School of Medicine in Shreveport

Well-designed intermediate-duration studies in the more sensitive species, particularly monkeys, are needed to determine thresholds for other targets. Additional investigation could help determine whether the respiratory system effects observed in workers exposed by inhalation (Emmett et al. Toxicity studies by the inhalation route would be relevant due to the potential for environmental exposure by this route, particularly in the vicinity of waste sites, but may not be practical due to low volatility. Additional intermediate-duration dermal studies, especially in sensitive species, are relevant because the skin is a route of concern for exposure at or near hazardous waste sites. Reported effects on the respiratory system and gastrointestinal tract in these workers are suggestive. Although limited in quantity, the available chronic animal oral toxicity data essentially corroborate the results of intermediate-duration studies with respect to effects in the liver, skin, stomach, blood, and thyroid, but provide no information on renal effects. Additional studies could help explain a lack of adrenal effects in monkeys exposed chronically (Loo et al. Additional evaluations of the thyroid would be particularly informative because intermediate-duration animal studies indicating that the thyroid may be a particularly sensitive target of toxicity in monkeys has limitations (Tryphonas et al. However, there was simultaneous exposure to benzene, which is known to cause genotoxic effects in humans. It is quite possible, however, that toxic chlorinated dioxins and/or furans were generated during the fire. Studies with Aroclor 1254 in human lymphocytes in vitro gave conflicting results; Hoopingarner et al. Aroclors 1242 and 1254 were not genotoxic in rats and mice when administered orally in acute- and intermediate-duration studies (Garthoff et al. Studies by the inhalation and dermal routes would help develop dose-response relationships for these routes. Aroclor 1254 was not mutagenic in Salmonella (Bruce and Heddle 1979; Heddle and Bruce 1977; Schoeny et al. Studies with other mixtures, and using other prokaryotes, would provide information regarding differences in potencies of different mixtures and in the sensitivities of different organisms. In women, there was no apparent effect of occupational exposure to various Aroclor mixtures on mean number of pregnancies (Taylor et al. Studies that examined reproductive end points in women whose diets contained Great Lakes fish found suggestive evidence that consumption of the fish may be associated with a slightly shorter menstrual cycle length (Mendola et al. Studies of one cohort of Great Lakes fisheaters indicated that women were more likely to have positive associations with conception delay than their exposed husbands (Buck et al. The strength of the human evidence that consumption of Great Lakes fish may or may not be associated with adverse effects on conception and other reproductive abilities is weak given the small magnitude of effects when they have been detected and study limitations as discussed in Section 3. Effects that have been induced in female animals include estrus changes and reduced implantation rate in adult rats and/or their offspring, decreased conception in mice, partial or total reproductive inhibition in minks, and menstrual alterations and decreased fertility in monkeys (Allen et al. In male animals, short-term exposure to high oral doses of Aroclor 1254 induced no changes in the weight or histology of the testes or accessory glands in adult rats (Dikshith et al. There is limited evidence of hypoactivity of the seminiferous tubules in monkeys that were chronically exposed to a dose of Aroclor 1248 that also caused clinical signs of toxicity (Allen and Norback 1976). In contrast to the limited evidence for reproductive effects in male adult animals, fertility was markedly reduced in male offspring of rats that were lactationally exposed to relatively high doses of Aroclor 1254 (Sager 1983; Sager et al. In the various cohorts studied, some common findings of neurodevelopmental effects have been reported, other affected end points have not been the same in all studies. This is not unexpected given the different degrees of control for confounders and the different measures of exposure used. Moreover, apparent inconsistencies between studies may reflect not only limitations in study design, but also problems inherent in detecting neurobehavioral deficits at exposure levels near the threshold for effects. It is expected that children from these prospective studies continue to be monitored in order to assess the impact of these subtle neurobehavioral alterations as they grow older and their potential implications at a population level. This means establishing whether the children who showed impaired performance in some tests at 18 and 24 months are the same who performed poorly in tests given as neonates.

Saliva from these glands is emptied into the oral cavity by Wharton duct, which is about 40 mm long. The duct opens at the side of frenulum of tongue, by means of a small opening on the summit of papilla called caruncula sublingualis. Palatal Glands Palatal glands are found beneath the mucus membrane of the soft palate. Sublingual Glands Sublingual glands are the smallest salivary glands situated in the mucosa at the floor of the mouth. Saliva from these glands is poured into 5 to 15 small ducts called ducts of Rivinus. It drains the anterior part of the gland and opens on caruncula sublingualis near the opening of submaxillary duct. Lingual Mucus Glands Lingual mucus glands are situated in posterior one third of the tongue, behind circumvallate papillae and at the tip and margins of tongue. Lingual Serous Glands Lingual serous glands are located near circumvallate papillae and filiform papillae. Buccal Glands Buccal glands or molar glands are present between the mucus membrane and buccinator muscle. Four to five of these are larger and situated outside buccinator, around the terminal part of parotid duct. Labial Glands Labial glands are situated beneath the mucus membrane around the orifice of mouth. Each acinus is formed by a small group of cells which surround a central globular cavity. Few intralobular ducts join to form interlobular ducts, which unite to form the main duct of the gland. A gland with this type of structure and duct system is called racemose type (racemose = bunch of grapes). Volume: 1000 mL to 1500 mL of saliva is secreted per day and it is approximately about 1 mL/minute. By the movement of tongue, the moistened and masticated food is rolled into a bolus. Salivary Amylase Salivary amylase is a carbohydrate-digesting (amylolytic) enzyme. Though starch digestion starts in the mouth, major part of it occurs in stomach because, food stays only for a short time in the mouth. Maltase Maltase is present only in traces in human saliva and it converts maltose into glucose. Due to the constant secretion of saliva, the mouth and teeth are rinsed and kept free off food debris, shed epithelial cells and foreign particles. In this way, saliva prevents bacterial growth by removing materials, which may serve as culture media for the bacterial growth. Enzyme lysozyme of saliva kills some bacteria such as staphylococcus, streptococcus and brucella. Proline-rich proteins present in saliva posses antimicrobial property and neutralize the toxic substances such as tannins. Proline-rich proteins and lactoferrin protect the teeth by stimulating enamel formation. Mucin present in the saliva protects the mouth by lubricating the mucus membrane of mouth. In some pathological conditions, saliva excretes certain substances, which are not found in saliva under normal conditions. In certain conditions, some of the normal constituents of saliva are excreted in large quantities. For example, excess urea is excreted in saliva during nephritis and excess calcium is excreted during hyperparathyroidism. However, in human beings, sweat glands play a major role in temperature regulation and saliva does not play any role in this function.

Syndromes

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