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He alleged that the New England states had the "most vicious and crazed blacks" because these areas were "hotbeds of abolitionism and the refuges of runaway slaves. Southern slaves were happy and carefree - their rates of mental stability attested to that - and fugitives had to be somewhat crazed to want to leave. Calhoun reasoned that: the census and other authentic documents show that, in all instances in which the States have changed the former relation between the two races, the condition of the African, instead of being improved, has become worse. They have been invariably sunk into vice and pauperism, accompanied by the bodily and mental inflictions incident thereto-deafness, blindness, insanity, and idiocy-to a degree without example. In a subsequent letter Calhoun denied that he had defended slavery in his previous letter and intervened that his intention had been to demonstrate from "unquestionable sources" the "depraved condition of Negroes in those states which had abolished the Cohen, A Calculating People, 194 "Reflections on the Census of 1840," 340-52; for another contemporary pro-slavery view, see also the anonymously published "Statistics of Population. Calhoun to Lord Richard Pakenham, April 18, 1844, "Proceedings of the Senate and Documents Relative to Texas," Senate Document, 28 Congress, no. In 1840 Cartwright claimed to use "medical statistics" as his own "Spear of Ithuriel" in order to expose the quackery of "Thomsonians" who had gained medical authority in Natchez. Cartwright compared black and white mortality rates during the period for which he had evidence. He tabulated that "During a period of ten years from 1820 to 1831, the mortality of Philadelphia has varied from 1 in 30. During the same period, the average mortality among fifteen or sixteen thousand negroes in Philadelphia has been 1 in 21. Cartwright wielded "medical statistics" as his primary weapon of choice because he believed that understanding something was synonymous with being able to measure it and to him the organic appeal of statistical data appeared self-evident. Statistics permitted observations of phenomena to be expressed in a mathematical language. Louis Menand observes, "It was a way of cataloguing the universe and creating models for manipulating it. The drive toward predicting outcomes, classifying phenomena and manipulating variables were forces that propelled the modernization process of a pre-industrial South, and both the North and Calhoun to Pakenham, April 27, 1844, "Proceedings of the Senate and Documents Relative to Texas," 65-67, and Cralle, ed. Calhoun, 5:343-347 95 Cartwright, "Remarks on the Medical Statistics of Natchez," 5 96 Ibid. Since the politics of the antebellum era were infused with contemporary understandings of mathematics and science it is useful to ask to what extent scientific ideas lay an intellectual grid against which contemporaries rationalized and justified social behavior. He argued that there can be no question either, that "the white, black and other races, present peculiar moral and physical characters, which should not be overlooked by the statesman, whose legitimate aim can only be the prosperity and happiness of all nations. Nott" had demonstrated that "the Negro attains his greatest perfection, physical and moral, and also his greatest longevity, in a sate of slavery. Ginor, physician in charge of the Eastern Penitentiary of Pennsylvania" had observed statistically "the most striking disproportion is between the white and colored deaths. We shall not dwell upon this, because we conceive it to have been clearly and exclusively settled in the negative by the writings of Bishop England, Dr. And we will further affirm that no prohibition, direct or indirect, expressed or implied, is contained either in the language or tenor of the Christian dispensation. De Bow asked a rhetorical question that he claimed was answerable only with an effort to collect the relevant data: he asked, "Is it true that the Negro is long lived at the De Bow wrote, "And, finally-though we know not on what principle to recommend it, unless on that of Dr. Cartwright, that crime is disease (at least he says, perhaps facetiously, that rascality, in negroes, may be cured by medicine)-could not the editor furnish the digested returns of public prisons, penitentiaries, pauper houses, as well as hospitals, that they may be compared with those of other communities In these exciting times, when fanaticism runs riot, endangering the existence of the Union, it becomes of the South to be furnished with a reason for her faith. However gratifying his Parisian trip might have been intellectually, bankruptcy forced his return from France to Natchez in 1837. At that time he had been undergoing advanced medical treatments in Paris for his increasing deafness. While Cartwright fought professional frustrations on the one hand, his time in Europe convinced him that he now possessed strong evidence of an international conspiracy against the slave south. At the same time the shifting social conditions back home in Natchez and the rise of the Free Black caste quickened his dedication to publishing and regulating the public mind.

About one-half of patients develop hypothyroidism due to autoantibodies against thyroid hormone. The relationship of the extra Y to behavior is controversial, but these individuals do have problems with motor and language development. True hermaphroditism refers to the presence of both ovarian and testicular tissue. Female pseudohermaphroditism results from excessive exposure to androgens during early gestation; most often this is the result of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Male pseudohermaphroditism results from defective virilization of the male embryo, most commonly caused by complete androgen insensitivity syndrome, also called testicular feminization. Mixed gonadal dysgenesis consists of one well-defined testis and a contralateral streak ovary. It is a cause of ambiguous genitalia in the General Pathology Answers 141 newborn. The first definable stage of B cell maturation occurs as the cell begins the process of producing immunoglobulin (Ig). The heavychain genes, which are located on chromosome 14, are first rearranged, but because this occurs before the rearrangement of the light-chain genes, complete immunoglobulin is not yet expressed on the cell surface. Instead mu heavy-chain genes are rearranged first and are found within the cytoplasm. If something goes wrong in this process, then the lambda light-chain genes on chromosome 22 are rearranged; otherwise they stay in their germline configuration. The synthesized light chains then combine with the intracytoplasmic mu heavy chains to form complete IgM, which is then transported to the surface, forming surface IgM (sIgM). Next these developing B cells produce IgD, which is also expressed on the cell surface (sIgD). They are also called "virgin" B cells because these cells have not encountered any foreign antigen. These B lymphocytes are stimulated to proliferate by binding of foreign antigen to membrane-bound surface immunoglobulin (Ig) on the B cells. Upon activation these B cells will then 142 Pathology become either memory cells or plasma cells, the product of which is Ig. Igs are composed of light chains and heavy chains, each of which are composed of a variable region and a constant region. The variable regions of both of these chains form the antigen-binding region of Ig, which is called the Fab portion. The two light chains are the kappa chain, the genes of which are located on chromosome 2, and the gamma chain, the genes of which are located on chromosome 22. The heavy chains are M, D, A, E, and G, the genes of all of these being on chromosome 14. The combination of one type of light chain with a particular heavy-chain forms each of the five types of Ig. In contrast to Ig, erythropoietin is secreted by the peritubular interstitial cells of the kidney, while interleukin-2 and interleukin-3 are secreted by activated T cells. The monomeric form of IgM is found on the surface of some B cells, while the pentameric form is found in the serum and cannot cross the placenta. Because of this, elevated titers of toxoplasma-specific IgM antibodies, which generally persist for less than a year, are an indication, but not confirmation, of current or recent infection. In contrast to IgM, IgG, which is the most abundant Ig in the serum (80%), is secreted in the second response to certain antigens and does not predominate early during the first response. Therefore, toxoplasma-specific IgG titers, which may persist for life, are only diagnostic if the titer is rising or they are particularly high (greater than 1:1024). Additionally, unlike IgM, IgG can cross the placenta, and it is the major protective immunoglobulin in the neonate. IgD, which forms less than 1% of serum Ig, is found on the cell surface of some B cells and functions in the activation of these B cells. IgE, also known as reaginic antibody, is found on the plasma membrane of mast cells and basophils and participates in type I hypersensitivity reactions, such as allergies, asthma, and anaphylaxis.

Fusion of the proximal row of tarsal bones with the tibia creates the tibiotarsus. The distal tarsal bones are fused to a single weight-bearing metatarsal bone; this is therefore correctly referred to as the tarsometatarsus in birds. Digit one has two phalanges, digit two has three, digit three has four, and digit four has five. As the pectoral muscles of birds are massively developed, the sternum (their primary attachment site) is correspondingly enlarged. The large, shieldlike mass of the sternum is further increased for muscle attachment by the presence of a large midline keel or sternal crest. The cranial sternum, especially, is adorned with projections that serve as articulating processes and sites for muscle attachment. Ten to 14 days prior to the beginning of a laying period, chickens develop a type of bony tissue unique to birds and crocodilians in the shaft of long bones such as the femur. This medullary bone consists of interlacing bony spicules, with blood sinuses and marrow between the spicules. Medullary bone may replace up to 75% of the hematopoietic tissue in laying hens, but it is absent in non-laying hens and males. Medullary bone formation is stimulated by the effects of estrogen on osteoblasts, and just prior to the beginning of an egg production period, estrogen levels are relatively high as ovarian follicles mature and begin secreting estrogen. Medullary bone provides a ready source of calcium that can be mobilized later for use in eggshell production. Eggshell formation and calcium metabolism will be discussed in more detail in a later section of this chapter. Gastrointestinal System the complete gastrointestinal system of poultry is illustrated in Figure 30-3. A distinguishing characteristic of the class Aves is the modification of the jaws into a beak, the shape of which is adapted to the foraging behaviors and diet of individual species. Gallinaceous birds have pointed beaks for picking up individual food items, and Anseriformes have a flattened, spoon-shaped beak that is somewhat more flexible and is adapted for straining through water for foodstuffs. The mouth of birds differs from that of mammals in that the palate is incompletely fused; this results in a longitudinal opening between oral and nasal cavities called the choanal cleft. The tongue is variable in shape, conforming as it does to the contours of the oral cavity. In domestic species, the tongue lacks musculature and is not much more than a bone (entoglossal bone) covered with a thick, cornified mucous membrane. The pharyngeal floor is characterized by a raised laryngeal mound, which features the aditus laryngeus (laryngeal slit). Within the neck, the esophagus features a distensible dilation called the crop or ingluvies. It is a small fusiform enlargement in ducks and geese, but is extremely well developed in gallinaceous birds. In these birds, the crop lies on the left side of the neck cranial to the furcula, and when full of food, it is readily palpable and visible. Like the esophagus, the crop is lined by a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The first chamber is the proventriculus or glandular stomach, which Musculature the most remarkable variations in the skeletal muscles of birds are not surprisingly associated with the musculature of the wing. The proventriculus is demarcated clearly by a constriction from the second chamber, the gizzard (muscular stomach or ventriculus muscularis). The highly keratinized mucosa on the inside of the gizzard, the cuticle, forms a thick, leathery sheet, which is removed during processing for human consumption. Crops and gizzards are unique to avian digestive systems and contribute to the efficiency with which many wild and domestic birds can utilize whole, intact seeds, including grains, as part of their diet. The crop provides for temporary storage after swallowing, and the gizzard provides a muscular force to grind and crush foodstuffs so that they can be more effectively digested. Hard particles, such as grit or gravel, consumed with food contribute to the ability of the gizzard to properly grind intact seeds, and a source of such particles should be part of the diet of birds fed this diet. Neither the crop nor the gizzard secretes enzymes to contribute to enzymatic digestion of foodstuffs. The duodenum forms a distinctive loop with the pancreas sandwiched between descending and ascending parts. The pancreas communicates with the lumen of the ascending duodenum through three ducts in gallinaceous birds and usually via two (sometimes three) in Anseriformes.

Adolescent work intensity and substance use: the mediational and moderational roles of parenting. Incentive motivation, cognitive control, and the adolescent brain: Is it time for a paradigm shift. Consequences of employment during high school: Character building, subversion of academic goals, or a threshold Parents and partners in crime: A six-year longitudinal study on changes in supportive relationships and delinquency in adolescence and young adulthood. Too pretty for homework: Sexualized gender stereotypes predict academic attitudes for gener-typical early adolescent girls. Changes in academic adjustment and relational self-worth across the transition to middle school. Early adolescent friendships and academic adjustment: Examining selection and influence processes with longitudinal social network analysis. Around the world, adolescence is a time of heightened sensation seeking and immature self-regulation. Ethnic identity, identity coherence, and psychological functioning: Testing basic assumptions of the developmental model. Associations of longitudinal sleep trajectories with risky sexual behavior during late adolescence. How do individual predispositions and family dynamics contribute to academic adjustment through the middle school years More recently, developmentalists have divided this age period into two separate stages: Emerging adulthood followed by early adulthood. Although these age periods differ in their physical, cognitive, and social development, overall the age period from 18 to 45 is a time of peak physical capabilities and the emergence of more mature cognitive development, financial independence, and intimate relationships. Jeffrey Arnett (2000) argues that emerging adulthood is neither adolescence nor is it young adulthood. Individuals in this age period have left behind the relative dependency of childhood and adolescence but have not yet taken on the responsibilities of adulthood. Arnett identified five characteristics of emerging adulthood that distinguished it from adolescence and young adulthood (Arnett, 2006). In 1950, Erik Erikson proposed that it was during adolescence that humans wrestled with the question of identity. Yet, even Erikson (1968) commented on a trend during the 20th century of a "prolonged adolescence" in industrialized societies. Today, most identity development occurs during the late teens and early twenties rather than adolescence. It is during emerging adulthood that people are exploring their career choices and ideas about intimate relationships, setting the foundation for adulthood. Arnett also described this time period as the age of instability (Arnett, 2000; Arnett, 2006). Emerging adults change jobs, relationships, and residences more frequently than other age groups. Arnett reports that in his research, he found emerging adults to be very considerate of the feelings of others, especially their parents. They now begin to see their parents as people not just parents, something most adolescents fail to do (Arnett, 2006). Nonetheless, emerging adults focus more on themselves, as they realize that they have few obligations to others and that this is the time where they can do what they want with their life. When asked if they feel like adults, more 18 to 25 year-olds answer "yes and no" than do teens or adults over the age of 25 (Arnett, 2001). Yet, they may still be Source financially dependent on their parents to some degree, and they have not completely attained some of the indicators of adulthood, such as finishing their education, obtaining a good full-time job, being in a committed relationship, or being responsible for others. It is not surprising that Arnett found that 60% of 18 to 25 year-olds felt that in some ways they were adults, but in some ways, they were not (Arnett, 2001). It is a time period of optimism as more 18 to 25 year-olds feel that they will someday get to where they want to be in life. Arnett (2000, 2006) suggests that this optimism is because these dreams have yet to be tested. For example, it is easier to believe that you will eventually find your soul mate when you have yet to have had a serious relationship.