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The separated peptides were tested for opioid-like activity by competitive binding to opioid receptor sites in rat brain tissue in the presence of tritiumlabeled dihydromorphine. The peptides showed considerable differences in activity; while some peptides exhibited no activity, 0. The most active peptides were derived from the gliadin fraction of the gluten complex. Abstract: If, as hypothesized, neuroactive peptides from grain glutens are the major agents evoking schizophrenia in those with the genotype(s), it should be rare if grain is rare. When these peoples became partially westernized and consumed wheat, barley beer, and rice, the prevalence reached European levels. Our findings agree with previous epidemiologic and experimental results indicating that grain glutens are harmful to schizophrenics. Abstract: It is well documented that peptides have a major role in the effective functioning of higher animals at all levels from enzyme stabilization to homeostatic mechanisms governing essential functions such as eating, sexual behavior, and temperature regulation. We have attempted to extend these findings by postulating peptidergic neurons as transducers of multisignal inputs, and that development of pathological states may be due to genetically-determined reduced levels of activity of key peptidases, leading to excretion of regulatory peptides into the circulation. We have been able to demonstrate that, in schizophrenia and autism (in well defined clinical cases), the patterns of peptides and associated proteins from urinary samples differ considerably from each other and from normal controls. In addition to this, further purification of the material obtained has led to the discovery of a number of factors capable of modulating the function of major neurotransmitters. Abstract: Peptidic neurones may be considered as multisignal intergrators and transducers. When formation or release of peptide outstrips genetically determined breakdown capacity, overflow of peptides to the body fluids and urine may be expected. In this paper, pathological urinary chromatographic patterns of peptides are shown for genetic, functional and mixed disorders. Part symptoms of the disorders may be induced with the biologically isolated and purified peptides as well as with chemically synthesized peptides. Abstract: Peptides with opioid activity are found in pepsin hydrolysates of wheat gluten and alpha-casein. The opioid activity of these peptides was demonstrated by use of the following bioassays: 1) naloxone-reversible inhibition of adenylate cyclase in homogenates of neuroblastoma X-glioma hybrid cells; 2) naloxone-reversible inhibition of electrically stimulated contractions of the mouse vas deferens; 3) displacement of [3H]dihydromorphine and [3H-Tyr, dAla2]met-enkephalin amide from rat brain membranes. Substances which stimulate adenylate cyclase and increase the contractions of the mouse vas deferens but do not bind to opiate receptors are also isolated from gluten hydrolysates. It is suggested that peptides derived from some food proteins may be of physiological importance. Abstract: Chloroform-methanol extracts of lyophilized milk, of commercially available dried milk or baby food and of casein digests were tested for opioid activity on the guinea-pig ileum longitudinal muscle-myenteric plexus preparation. Compounds with opioid activity-which proved to be resistant to peptidases-were detected in certain batches of baby food, casein digest, and cow milk in considerably varying amounts. The schizophrenic and other psychotic patients could be subdivided into two groups, one that responded in the leukocyte migration inhibition factor test as the celiac patients did and one that responded as the normal control subjects did. The psychotic and schizophrenic patients did not show any evidence of malabsorption. The authors speculate that gluten may be involved in biological processes in the brain in certain psychotic individuals. Abstract: the effect of particular foods on levels of hyperactivity, uncontrolled laughter, and disruptive behaviors was studied in an 8-year-old autistic boy. Frequency data were recorded on screaming, biting, scratching, and object throwing. During the final phase of the study the child was given only foods that had not provoked a reaction in the third phase. Results showed that foods such as wheat, corn, tomatoes, sugar, mushrooms, and dairy products were instrumental in producing behavioral disorders with this child. Abstract: Schizophrenics maintained on a cereal grain-free and milk-free diet and receiving optimal treatment with neuropleptics showed an interruption or reversal of their therapeutic progress during a period of "blind" wheat gluten challenge. The exacerbation of the disease process was not due to variations in neuroleptic doses.

Frontal release signs, such as grasping and sucking, may be present, as may double incontinence, but there is a relative paucity of upper motor neurone signs affecting either side of the body, suggesting relatively preserved descending pathways. Akinetic mutism represents an extreme form of abulia, hence sometimes referred to as abulia major. Akinetic mutism with disturbances of vertical eye movements and hypersomnia: associated with paramedian thalamic and thalamomesencephalic strokes. Pathology may be vascular, neoplastic, or structural (subacute communicating hydrocephalus), and evident on structural brain imaging. Akinetic mutism may be the final state common to the end-stages of a number of neurodegenerative pathologies. Akinetic mutism from hypothalamic damage: successful treatment with dopamine agonists. Cross References Aphasia; Aphemia Alexia Alexia is an acquired disorder of reading. The word dyslexia, though in some ways equivalent, is often used to denote a range of disorders in people who fail to develop normal reading skills in childhood. Patients lose the ability to recognize written words quickly and easily; they seem unable to process all the elements of a written word in parallel. They can still access meaning but adopt a laborious letter-by-letter strategy for reading, with a marked wordlength effect. Alexia without agraphia often coexists with a right homonymous hemianopia, and colour anomia or impaired colour perception (achromatopsia); this latter may be restricted to one hemifield, classically right-sided (hemiachromatopsia). Pure alexia has been characterized by some authors as a limited form of associative visual agnosia or ventral simultanagnosia. Hemianopic alexia: this occurs when a right homonymous hemianopia encroaches into central vision. Patients tend to be slower with text than single words as they cannot plan rightward reading saccades. Neglect alexia: Or hemiparalexia, results from failure to read either the beginning or end of a word (more commonly the former) in the absence of a hemianopia, due to hemispatial neglect. Pure alexia is caused by damage to the left occipitotemporal junction, its afferents from early mesial visual areas, or its efferents to the medial temporal lobe. Global alexia usually occurs when there is additional damage to the splenium or white matter above the occipital horn of the lateral ventricle. Hemianopic alexia is usually associated with infarction in the territory of the posterior cerebral artery damaging geniculostriate fibres or area V1 itself, but can be caused by any lesion outside the occipital lobe that causes a macular splitting homonymous field defect. Neglect alexia is usually caused by occipitoparietal lesions, right-sided lesions causing left neglect alexia. Phonological dyslexia: Reading by sight: difficulties with suffixes, unable to read non-words; left temporoparietal lobe pathology. Deep dyslexia: the inability to translate orthography to phonology, manifesting as an inability to read plausible non-words (as in phonological dyslexia), plus semantic errors related to word meaning rather than sound. There is evidence from functional imaging studies that alexithymics process facial expressions differently from normals, leading to the suggestion that this contributes to disordered affect regulation. Alexithymia is a common finding in split-brain patients, perhaps resulting from disconnection of the hemispheres. Alexithymia: an experimental study of cerebral commissurotomy patients and normal control subjects. Other conditions may also give rise to the phenomena of microsomatognosia or macrosomatognosia, including epilepsy, encephalitis, cerebral mass lesions, schizophrenia, and drug intoxication. Alien Grasp Reflex the term alien grasp reflex has been used to describe a grasp reflex occurring in full consciousness, which the patient could anticipate but perceived as alien.

Note: when reporting the calorie content of food, calorie is written with a capital C. Before the water molecules can start moving faster, the hydrogen bonds between the molecules must be broken, which requires the input of energy. Therefore, much of the energy (heat) is used to break the bonds rather than increasing the temperature (movement) of the water molecules. By the same token, when heat is removed and the water molecules begin to slow down, new hydrogen bonds form releasing energy, which helps prevent a big drop in temperature. Since the human body is about 2/3 water, this helps prevent rapid changes in body temperature. This means that in order to convert water from a liquid to a gas, it requires the input of relatively large amounts of energy to increase the movement of the water molecules enough for them to break free from the water molecules around them. As these water molecules move faster and faster they eventually will have enough energy to completely break away from the liquid and will be converted to a gas (water vapor). When the fastest moving molecules break free, their kinetic energy goes with them, removing heat. This is the basis for the cooling effect of the evaporation of sweat from our skin. Adhesion, Cohesion and Lubrication Water is able to stick to other polar substances. An excellent example of the importance of this property in the body involves the lungs. A thin layer of water between the outer surface of the lungs and the walls of the thoracic cavity "glues" the lungs to the walls and prevents them from collapsing. This property prevents the blood from separating as it moves through the blood vessels. Finally, water can act as a lubricant and is found in areas of the body where structures are required to slide past each other. Chemical Reactions All of the thousands of chemical reactions taking place in our bodies require water. Also, water participates directly in many of the important reactions taking place in the body. Therefore, in a solution of salt (NaCl) and water, the water is the solvent and the sodium and chloride are the solutes. Although water is an excellent solvent, not everything dissolves readily in water. Materials that dissolve well in water are said to be hydrophilic (hydro- = water; -phil- = love) and those that do not dissolve readily are said to be hydrophobic (phobia = fear). Usually if we know the chemical nature of a solute we can predict how readily it will dissolve in water. For example, compounds that are bound together by ionic bonds tend to be hydrophilic and dissolve readily. The secret is the ability of the polar water molecules to surround the ions and pull them out of the crystal. When the ions are pulled apart in this manner we say the compound has become dissociated or ionized and the ions in the solution are referred to as electrolytes. These ions participate in many important physiological process such as nerve impulse conduction, muscle contraction, and regulating water balance, to name a few. However, when polar covalent molecules dissolve in water, they do not ionize or separate into smaller particles like ionic compounds do. Sucrose or table sugar (C12H22O11) is a good example of a polar compound that readily dissolves in water, forming an aqueous solution. Compounds bound together with non-polar covalent bonds tend to be hydrophobic and do not dissolve readily in water. This is because there are no charged or polar parts to interact with the polar water molecules. One of the most important structures in the cells of our bodies is the biological membrane. These membranes are stabilized by the hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions of some special compounds that we will study later. For example, the normal fasting glucose concentration in the blood is approximately 90 mg glucose per 100 ml of blood.

Whereas linkage causes alleles on the same chromosome to be inherited together, homologous recombination biases alleles toward an inheritance pattern of independent assortment. Disorders in chromosome number, or aneuploidies, are typically lethal to the embryo, although a few trisomic genotypes are viable. Because of X inactivation, aberrations in sex chromosomes typically have milder phenotypic effects. Aneuploidies also include instances in which segments of a chromosome are duplicated or deleted. Chromosome structures may also be rearranged, for example by inversion or translocation. Because they force chromosomes to assume unnatural topologies during meiosis, inversions and translocations are often associated with reduced fertility because of the likelihood of nondisjunction. Recombination of the body color and red/ cinnabar eye alleles will occur more frequently than recombination of the alleles for wing length and aristae length. Recombination of the gray/black body color and long/short aristae alleles will not occur. Recombination of the red/brown eye and long/ short aristae alleles will occur more frequently than recombination of the alleles for wing length and body color. The first suggestion that chromosomes may physically exchange segments came from the microscopic identification of. Which recombination frequency corresponds to independent assortment and the absence of linkage? Which of the following codes describes position 12 on the long arm of chromosome 13? In agriculture, polyploid crops (like coffee, strawberries, or bananas) tend to produce. Which recombination frequency corresponds to perfect linkage and violates the law of independent assortment? During meiosis, what structure-if any-would these homologs assume in order to pair accurately along their lengths? Abnormalities in the number of X chromosomes tends to have milder phenotypic effects than the same abnormalities in autosomes because of. Explain how the Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance helped to advance our understanding of genetics. Each human cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes: one set of chromosomes is inherited from the mother and the other set is inherited from the father. There is also a mitochondrial genome, inherited exclusively from the mother, which can be involved in inherited genetic disorders. On each chromosome, there are thousands of genes that are responsible for determining the genotype and phenotype of the individual. The human haploid genome contains 3 billion base pairs and has between 20,000 and 25,000 functional genes. To see Miescher conduct an experiment step-by-step, click through this review openstaxcollege. A half century later, British bacteriologist Frederick Griffith was perhaps the first person to show that hereditary information could be transferred from one cell to another "horizontally," rather than by descent. He was working with Streptococcus pneumoniae, the bacterium that causes pneumonia. The R strain is non-pathogenic (does not cause disease) and is called rough because its outer surface is a cell wall and lacks a capsule; as a result, the cell surface appears uneven under the microscope. The S strain is pathogenic (disease-causing) and has a capsule outside its cell wall. In another experiment, when he injected mice with the heat-killed S strain, they also survived. In a third set of experiments, a mixture of live R strain and heat-killed S strain were injected into mice, and-to his surprise-the mice died.