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S. Knut, M.A., Ph.D.

Co-Director, University of California, Riverside School of Medicine

Nest destruction by spraying nests with highpressure hoses is cost-effective, eliminates ectoparasites, and cleans droppings and feathers from the nest site. When non-lethal bird control is required, which of the following bird-management techniques may be used? Netting Avitrol Ornitrol A&C General Pest Management 185 Section 4: Chapter 18 39. Only 5 to 15 percent of the flock needs to be affected for Avitrol to be successful. To prebait, place about twenty 1/4-pound piles of bait on a 5,000-square-foot roof. The goal of prebaiting is to get at least 40 percent of the birds to accept the bait. After cleaning up bird droppings, remove your respirator, then remove your protective clothing and place in a plastic bag. A thin membrane of skin stretches from the long, modified front legs to the back legs and then to the tail. Many bats feed on insects and can consume up to half their body weight in insects in one feeding. Occasionally, however, they become a nuisance inside buildings or pose a public health problem. The bats that most often become a problem around people are the ones that live in colonies or groups. Although rats, mice, and birds are the vertebrate pests most commonly encountered in the urban environment, other vertebrates sometimes become pests, too. Some of these animals become pests when they wander into residential areas from nearby wild areas or parks; examples of these are skunks, raccoons, and opossums. Some vertebrate pests have taken to living along with people- next to or sometimes inside buildings-e. Whatever the pests, sometimes they must be controlled-because they are often game animals or are otherwise protected, most control actions will be non-lethal. Depending on the species and geographic location, they breed from late spring to midsummer. Their squeaking and scrambling noises can be intolerable to residents of the building. Although bats are confirmed carriers of the disease, only a few human fatalities have been attributed to bat bites. The incidence of histoplasmosis (discussed in detail in the chapter on birds) being transmitted from bat droppings to humans is not thought to be high. The best time to observe the bats and pinpoint major exit and entry points is usually from just before to an hour after sunset. Habits of Bats During warm weather, bats feed on flying insects in late afternoon, evening, and early morning. If you see a bat at this time, it has either been disturbed from its daytime resting place or is sick. Bats are able to enter these places of refuge through holes as small as 3/8 inch in diameter. Bats capture flying insects by echolocation-they emit high-frequency sounds inaudible to humans and similar Section 4: Chapter 19 188 Figure 19. However, bat droppings contain wings, legs, and other body parts of insects not found in mouse droppings. Roosting sites have a very pungent and penetrating odor, musky and sweet, that comes from rotting droppings and bat urine. Large sections of plastic bird netting can be draped over the roof areas of old buildings to keep out bats at a reasonable cost. If bat-proofing is not possible or bats need to be forced out of a building before it is batproofed, the bats can sometimes be repelled from their roost.

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Examples include running away from home, truancy from school, curfew violations, or possessing substances like tobacco or alcohol. In Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, between 2003 and 2012, prosecutors were more than three times more likely to strike a black juror than a non-black juror. However, there have been several instances when prospective jurors were challenged and not permitted to serve based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. For example, in a 2000 case a prosecutor challenged a prospective juror named Chris Lewis, a black transgender woman. Department of Justice issued a department policy that prohibits striking a juror based on sexual orientation, as is already the case for race, gender, and ethnicity. Frequently, jurors are selected or disqualified based on their personal feelings about issues raised by a case, whether they personally know an individual involved, or other factors. Additionally, jurors are given instructions as to what information they can and cannot take into consideration in reaching a verdict. Discrimination During Jury Selection Current federal law prohibits discrimination in jury selection based on race and ethnicity, but there is evidence that jurors are frequently excluded because of their race or ethnicity. A report examining juries in eight southern states found that individuals who are African American are discriminated against when considered for jury service. For example, research finds that convictions and sentences are frequently more likely and more severe for defendants of color. For example, when arguing for the death sentence for Jay Wesley Neill, a gay man, a prosecutor in Oklahoma asked the jury to disregard the man in front of them and focus only on his sexuality. In many ways, these facilities-including juvenile justice facilities, jails or prisons, or immigration detention facilities-are outside of public view and understanding. Yet one in 35 adults in the United States, or nearly 7 million people, are currently under supervision of the criminal justice system-in prison or jail or being supervised by a probation or parole officer. Regardless of why someone is placed in a facility, the conditions of their detention should ensure their overall physical, mental, and emotional safety and offer opportunities to build skills that will help them successfully rebuild their lives upon release. Unfortunately, most confinement facilities in the United States fail at these most basic goals. Many of the issues are similar across adult, juvenile, and immigration confinement facilities, but key differences will be addressed throughout. The federal government oversees federal prisons through the Bureau of Prisons and controls immigration detention facilities through the Department of Homeland Security. State correctional facilities are administered by state departments of corrections. State youth facilities are overseen by state departments of corrections or separate youth correctional departments. Each jurisdiction is responsible for protecting the safety of individuals in their facilities and developing standards of care. Several federal agencies provide funding to state and local departments through grant programs, but in general, federal authority over these departments is limited and monitoring is inconsistent and scarce. Even within a particular state, various departments at the state, county, and city levels intersect in their oversight. As a result, even among jurisdictions and facilities within one state, there is wide variation in policies, conditions for those in detention, and services and programs such as health care, job training, and education. Adding to the problems, knowledge about the conditions in prisons, jails, and other confinement facilities is scarce. No national mandatory reporting system tracks basic confinement facility conditions, such as the size or configuration of cells, daily program offerings, or even how long individuals are permitted to be out of their cells. At its core, this law seeks to enforce basic regulations that reduce and eliminate sexual assault within all facilities where individuals are held-both by fellow inmates and by staff. The law applies to both facilities housing adults and those housing young people, though it applies a little differently across different levels of government. States that do not certify that they have adopted the standards and are in compliance across all their facilities-or at least working to be in compliance- risk losing federal funding, but would not face other consequences from the federal government. The law is mandatory for all federal facilities, including prisons, immigration detention facilities, and other confinement facilities operating under contract with the federal government, such as state prisons or county jails that house federal prisoners or detainees. Staff at the facility then determined her placement solely based on the fact that she was transgender and posed a "possible threat to the security of the institution. For example, a sergeant referred to her as an "it," told her that she was not a real woman, and that she should kill herself. Correctional officers would stare in her cell to gawk and giggle at her, threaten her, and call her names, leaving her in tears.

So leaving these more theoretical concerns about non-interference to one side, I now turn to some possible reasons for why the liberal framing has been so powerful. I think the liberal tradition in contemporary medical ethics has been supported by at least three features: the history of medical ethics as a discipline; its relation with the law; and a set of assumptions about pluralism. These features are partial explanations as to why the parameters are set in their current position. However, I suggest that none of these three reasons provide any convincing justification for why we must remain locked within such a framework. First, as many people have now noted, the history of medical ethics from its early years was focused very much on dyadic clinical relationships between doctor and patient and a very narrow set of issues either related to such a relationship (for example, consent and confidentiality) or a view of ethical theory and principles focused on individual patient rights and autonomous decision making. The consensus that health care was too paternalistic resulted in the de facto establishment of respect for individual autonomy as the dominating principle in medical ethics. Other areas of bioethics, related to animals and the broader environment, tended to be downplayed. The other factor that has driven much ethical discussion is the apparent glamour of new technologies and cutting-edge medicine. Much contemporary medical ethics can be seen as dwelling in one of two camps: those with a tendency to see technology as providing solutions and those suspicious of it. As I have already mentioned, many others have said that medical ethics must be revised to accommodate these issues. Chapter 1: Resetting the parameters 9 the second feature that has tended to support the liberal approach is a set of assumptions about the relationship between law and ethics. There is a common tendency to confuse the two, and this may relate to the apparent obsession that many working in medical ethics seem to have with the issue of regulation of health care practice (often with the assumption that anything is and ought to be permitted unless it is explicitly squashed by law, resulting in the focus, too easily, becoming one of ensuring that regulation is minimal). The relation between law and ethics is a complex one, but the main point is that the two are distinct, although they may be related. The problem with confusing the law and ethics in relation to public health is that the law too often works with narrow accounts of both causation and responsibility, with a focus on individual action. This can be seen, for example, in relation to both tort and crime (Coker and Martin, 2006; Martin, 2009), although the law may also be used in other ways to promote public health (Gostin and Stone, 2007). Third, there is an assumption in much contemporary medical ethics that as we cannot agree in our moral judgments we, therefore, ought to be committed to pluralism in ethics in general. It is then concluded that we must focus on process values rather than pursuing substantive answers to ethical questions. The relation of these ideas to liberalism is the thought that we can remain neutral in terms of values and allow individuals to make their own decisions and pursue their own view of what is morally appropriate. First, the fact that different perspectives exist upon an ethical issue does not on its own have any implications for our normative views. The former does not imply the latter, and it is the latter that the supporters of such relativistic pluralism need to establish. It should also be noted that you can be both a value pluralist (there is more than one value) and a moral realist (there are objective answers to moral questions) at the same time. However, it often seems to be missed that judgment pluralism cannot easily be combined with a coherent defence of a value such as tolerance. Indeed, a commitment to tolerance is most easily defended from a realist tradition (that is we ought to be tolerant, even if other people think differently). Fourth, a commitment to procedure over content is not remaining neutral about values, but just choosing to adopt a particular account of ethics: one committed to procedural values as though this were not just a commitment to a particularly thin set of substantive values. In other words, narrow liberal views will fail to meet my suggested condition for an adequate theory of public health ethics. They are essentially attempts to highlight a useful and pragmatic set of issues, with a clear focus on practical implementation for those working in public health practice and policy. However, I suggest that there are specific problems with each view and there are general problems for any principled approach. I classify the latter view as a modified liberal view because, like these three principled approaches, it seems deeply committed to working within liberal parameters.

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