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Program Director, Tulane University School of Medicine

Unlike bite marks, the material is likely to be much more permanent and, wherever possible, the pathologist should retain photographs, chartings and even the actual dentition against the time when expert dental opinion might become available. When time presses in a criminal inves-tigation, however, or where no dental help is ever likely to be forthcoming, then the pathologist has to do the best he can, though many special techniques such as radiology or tooth sections may be quite beyond his capabilities. General or reconstructive identity Unlike skeletal remains, the human origin of dental material is rarely in doubt. In badly decomposed or skeletalized bodies the jaws usually survive intact, though in dry skeletons, teeth may become loose and fall out, especially the single-rooted canines and incisors. Even in fragmented bodies and skeletons, the jaw remnants and teeth are readily recognizable, even by lay persons. Where teeth have dropped out and been recovered independently of a body, they are still usually recognizable as human, as opposed to most domestic or farm animals. In countries where large primates exist, there may be some confusion, but this is a rare problem. Having established the human origin, the next determination is sex and here teeth have a poor discriminating value, though the intact jaw is more helpful, as discussed in Chapter 3. The difference in size between the upper lateral and upper central incisors is often greater in women, the male incisors being more equal in size. The female canines are usually smaller and more pointed relative to the male, more especially in the mandible than the maxilla. If the skeletal age is known, then more advanced tooth eruption in young persons is an indication of being female, though in these circumstances there are usually far better indicators of sex available elsewhere in the skeleton. The mandibular first molar often lacks a fifth cusp in the female, which is almost always present in the male. The posterior surfaces of these teeth have a depression centrally, with two marginal bars, causing the back of the tooth to appear like a coal shovel with turned-up edges. The feature is found mainly amongst Chinese, Mongols, Eskimos and Japanese, but is also found amongst non-Mongoloid races in lesser numbers. In Caucasian races, the lateral incisors in the upper jaw are usually smaller than the central, especially in women, a feature absent or less marked in Negroid or Mongoloid races. Enamel pearls, small nodules of enamel on the tooth surface, are much more frequent in Mongoloid teeth. A congenital lack of the third upper molar is most common in Mongoloids, but can occur in any race. Negroid races tend to have large teeth and often have more cusps on their molars, even up to eight, with two lingual cusps on the mandibular first premolars as an additional common finding. The age of the person is one of the most useful findings disclosed by the teeth, especially in the first two decades of life. This is only an average timetable, however, and is modified by several factors, such as sex, race and climate. The determination of age from fetal teeth is also a matter for embryologists or dentists with specialized knowledge of this period. After the third molar has erupted in the third decade of life, then age determination becomes much more difficult. Much research has been expended in forensic odontology and the name of Gustafson (see references and further reading) is well known in this respect. This method, as later modified by Johanson (1971), is said to give an age accuracy within 5 years either side of the true age. It seems pointless to rehearse these methods in advice to pathologists, however, as specialized techniques, equipment and knowledge are needed for these procedures. The standard textbooks on forensic odontology and original papers should be consulted for the details. The crowns are worn down to expose the dentine by a rough diet that probably contained stone dust in the flour from contemporary milling methods. Much depends upon the care with which they have been maintained, however, though marked occlusal attrition tends to go with increasing age, unless a rough diet has accelerated the wear.

The same researchers conducted a study with 50 mice/sex injected subcutaneously with 10% Citrus Red 2 for 35 weeks, followed by injections every 3 weeks for 15 weeks. Female mice showed an increase in total malignant tumors, which appeared earlier than tumors in the control group. The most common malignant tumors were adenocarcinomas of the lung and lymphosarcomas. Rats in the two highest dosage groups were sacrificed after 31 weeks because of severe toxicity. Dacre administered Citrus Red 2 for 24 months to 20 mice and 20 albino rats per dosage group. This study found hyperplasia (an increased number of cells, but not necessarily leading to a tumor) and a thickening of the urinary bladder wall in both treatment groups in rats and mice. Of greater concern, 2 out of 20 mice that were examined developed benign papillomas and one male mouse developed a malignant papilloma in the urinary bladder, and 4 out 28 rats that were examined developed benign papillomas. About the same number of pathological changes were seen in the low- and high-dosage groups in both species and sexes. Three female and 3 male Osborne-Mendel rats were orally administered a single 200-mg dose of Green 3. Male and female bile duct-cannulated dogs were orally administered a single 200-mg dose of Green 3. None of the color was found in the urine and about 2% of the dye was recovered in the bile of two of three dogs. Genotoxicity Table 2 lists the number of negative and positive results for genotoxicity studies performed on Green 3, with Table A3 in the Appendix providing more details. That assay tests for base-pair mutations, and Green 3 only yielded positive results when tested as a mixture of several batches of dye of varying purity (Ishidate, Sofuni et al. Green 3 was also positive for mutagenicity in a Fischer rat embryo cell transformation assay (Price, Suk et al. That particular assay tests for malignant cell transformation, an indicator of carcinogenic potential. Green 3 was positive at 1 g/ml but, surprisingly, produced negative results at higher concentrations. After reproduction, 2, 3, or 4 pups/sex/litter/group were randomly selected for the long-term study. The same dosage levels used in the in utero phase were administered to 70 rats/sex/group for approximately 30 months. No significant effects were noted during the in utero phase except that pup mortality was increased in the mid- and high-dose groups of the F1 generation. In the F1 generation, a significant decrease in survivorship was seen in all treated groups of males and females, but there was no dose-response trend, making that decreased survivorship difficult to interpret. Urinalysis, hematologic parameters, physical observations, and ophthalmology did not indicate any adverse effects of Green 3 (Bio/dynamics 1982a). Statistical analysis found that the increased incidences were significant for the urinary bladder transitional cell/urothelial neoplasms (p=0. Mark Nicolich, a statistician working at the company that conducted the study, stated, "Therefore, there is statistical evidence that the high dose of the test material increases the occurrence of certain types of tumors in rats" (Bio/Dynamics 1981). Regarding the urinary bladder neoplasms, the original report submitted by the petitioners stated that the high-dose male rats had a significantly increased incidence of those benign tumors. However, in the final submission, the petitioners submitted an addendum claiming, without any specific justification, lack of statistical significance. No gross or microscopic neoplastic and non-neoplastic observations related to administration of the color were observed. Statistical analysis concluded that Green 3 did not have any negative effect on time-to-tumor, survivorship, or tumor incidence in mice (Bio/dynamics 1982b). Chronic Toxicity/Carcinogenicity Orange B was fed to 50 Sprague-Dawley rats/sex/group at doses of 0, 0. By the end of the second year, all of the rats in the 2% and most in the remaining groups (including the control groups) were dead. Male and female rats in the two highest-dose groups showed lymphoid atrophy of the spleen and bile-duct proliferation. All examined animals in the highestdose group experienced moderate chronic nephritis, but increased tumor rates were not reported.

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The two blastomeres divide and become four cells and this process continues until a cluster of cells 311 (16 to 32 of them) is formed called a morula. As division continues this cluster becomes a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst. The hollow cavity of the blastocyst is called the blastocele and most of the wall of the blastocyst consists of a layer of simple squamous epithelia called the trophoblast. Color in the various stages in different colors and use one color for the trophoblast and another for the embryoblast. Once this occurs, a hollow space develops in the embryoblast and this is called the amniotic cavity. At this time, the embryoblast is divided into a bilaminar germ disk with two primitive tissues called the epiblast and the hypoblast. The primitive streak forms along the anterior/posterior axis of the embryo and it becomes a region of growth in the early stage of development. The structure is now referred to as a trilaminar germ disk (meaning a developmental structure with three layers). The development of the notochord begins and this structure will make up the center part (nucleosus pulposus) of the intervertebral disks in the adult. Once the germ layers are formed, the preembryonic stage ends and the developing tissue is known as an embryo. The embryonic stage begins about day 16 after fertilization and lasts until about the eighth week of pregnancy. During the embryonic stage, the major organs of the body are initiated in a process called organogenesis. During the first part of the embryonic phase, the ectoderm begins to fold in on itself and becomes a neural groove. Other derivatives of the ectoderm are the epidermis and some of the facial bones and muscles. The mesoderm gives rise to most of the bones and muscles of the body, the dermis, and the circulatory system. The endodermis gives rise to the linings of the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory system, and some glands. As development continues, the neural groove folds in on itself and becomes a neural tube and the formation of the gut takes place. Label the structures in the embryonic phase and use blue colors for the ectoderm and derivatives of the ectoderm such as the neural tissue. Prior to the fetal stage the outer wall of the embryo develops into a membrane called the chorion and some of this membrane is joined with the maternal vasculature and forming the placenta. A membrane called the amnion folds around the embryo forming the amniotic cavity and this cavity is filled with amnitoic fluid. The stages of development can be divided into the pre-embryo (from fertilization to two weeks), the embryo (up to eight weeks after fertilization) and the final stage, the fetus (after eight weeks). The conceptus is the term used for the developing cells and tissues from the pre-embryo through the fetus. Before delivery of the fetus, the amniotic sac ruptures releasing amniotic fluid, the uterus contracts expelling the fetus from the uterus, and the final stage occurs when the placenta is released. Muscles can also be functionally related, for example, muscles that act on the thigh or muscles that flex the hand. Origin, Insertion, Action 331 the origin of the muscle is the stable part of the muscle. The majority of muscles have origins that are superior, proximal, or medial to the insertion. The insertion of the muscle is the part of the muscle that has the greatest motion when the muscle contracts. In some cases a muscle can move either the origin or the insertion and you should learn the origins and insertions as presented. When you study muscles, it helps to take two or three at a time and learn just the origins of the muscles.

The opposite of "upload" downscaling refers to techniques that take output from the model and add information at scales smaller than the grid spacing downstream in the direction of the water movement downwelling a downward current of surface water in the ocean, usually caused by differences in the density of seawater dredge a metal collar with an attached collecting bag that is dragged along the bottom to obtain samples of rock, sediment, or benthic organisms. For example, dredging can destroy coral reefs and other aquatic life; filling can destroy the feeding and breeding grounds for many fish and invertebrate species drift net a fishing net, often miles in extent, arranged to drift with the tide or current and buoyed-up by floats or attached to a boat A marine turtle is caught in a drift net. It stimulates growth and ecdysis (molting) Ecdysozoa the ecdyzoans comprise one of the major and largest protostome groups within the animal kingdom. It includes both the arthropods and the nematodes, as well as lesser groups such as rotifers, cephalorhynchs (which include priapulids, kinorhynchs, and loriciferans), and onychophorans. Ecdysozoans build a cuticle, an outer layer of organic material that functions as a lightweight flexible exoskeleton. The name Ecdysozoa refers to the fact that many members of this group regularly shed their cuticle, a process called ecdysis. Adults exhibit pentamerous radial symmetry, secondarily derived from a bilateral ancestor. They are not at all related to the other radiate phyla, such as the Cnidaria A pencil urchin of the phylum Echinodermata. Echiurans are deposit feeders echolocation the sonar-like ability used by bats, dolphins, some whales, and two groups of cave-dwelling birds to detect objects in their environment. Using echolocation, the animal emits high-frequency sounds that reflect off of an object and return to the ears or other sensory receptors ecocline a gradual and continuous change in environmental conditions of an ecosystem or community; gradual transition between ecotypes; a continuous change in form as a response to a continuous change in an environment. The coral in the background has been attached to the reef framework using stainless steel wires. The wire binds the coral fragment to the living coral where it is expected to reattach to the live coral. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulation services such as the regulation of climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services such as recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, and spiritual fulfillment; and supporting services such as photosynthesis and nutrient cycling. Typically there is an increased richness of organisms resulting from the mixing of two communities where they join eelgrass a common seagrass (Zostera marina) distributed from Greenland to Florida that serves as an important habitat for fishes and shellfish. Unfortunately, approximately 90 percent of all eelgrass throughout its range along the Atlantic coast has been destroyed. Generally used in regard to discharges into waters; in contrast to an emmission, which is generally used in regard to discharges of pollutants into the air effort the amount of time and fishing power used to harvest fish. Fishing power includes gear size, boat size, and horsepower egestion the elimination of undigested food materials from an organism egg a female sex cell or gamete with the haploid number of chromosomes. It may be fertilized by a sperm cell to produce a zygote with the diploid number of chromosomes for that particular species. The eggs of some species may develop into multicellular individuals without being fertilized by a sperm cell. It does not usually extend farther than a few degrees south of the equator, but occasionally it does penetrate beyond 12 deg S, displacing the relatively cold Peru Current. The effects of this phenomenon are generally short-lived, and fishing is only slightly disrupted. These include sharks, rays, and skates the manta ray is a large, graceful, mostly plankton-feeding elasmobranch. The electric currents produced by some species of fishes, such as torpedo rays and electric eels, are generated in stacks or columns of electrocytes. When an electrocyte is stimulated, a movement of ions (electrically charged atoms) across the cell membrane results in an electric discharge electrogenic capable of generating electric currents and a painful electric shock, as in electric rays electromagnetic radiation. The highest frequencies in the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation are gamma-rays; the lowest frequencies are radio waves. Shorter wavelength radiation (eg, ultraviolet) carries more energy and is likely to be more harmful to living tissue electromagnetic receptor a neurological receptor that responds to light, electricity, and magnetism. Photoreceptors respond to light and electroreceptors detect electrical energy electron microscope a microscope which beams electrons, instead of light beams, at and through the object of interest. This type of microscope provides the greatest resolution of extremely small details in the nanometer size range.